History Notes

Introduction to the Subjects of History

History, a term derived from the Ancient Greek word ‘historía’, which translates to ‘inquiry’ or ‘knowledge acquired by investigation’, is a field that involves the systematic study and documentation of the human past. As an academic discipline, history employs a narrative approach to describe, examine, question, and analyze past events, with a particular focus on investigating patterns of cause and effect.

The study of history is incredibly diverse and wide-ranging. It encompasses the study of specific regions across the globe and delves into certain topical or thematic elements of historical investigation. History is a fundamental part of education systems worldwide, being taught at various levels, from primary and secondary education to higher education. The academic study of history is considered a major discipline in universities, attracting students and researchers who wish to explore the depths of our past.

The subjects within the field of history are meticulously designed to enable students to learn about the history of the world in comprehensive detail. These subjects include:

1. World History:

This subject offers a broad overview of global historical events, spanning from ancient times to the modern era. It provides insights into how civilizations have evolved and interacted over centuries.

1. History of Southeast Asia and India: This subject zeroes in on the historical events, cultures, and civilizations of Southeast Asia and India, offering a detailed exploration of these rich and diverse regions.

2. Civilization and Culture: This subject delves into the development of various civilizations and cultures throughout history. It examines how societies have grown, adapted, and influenced each other over time.

3. Economic History: This subject focuses on the economic aspects of history, including the evolution of economic systems, trade, and commerce. It provides an understanding of how economies have shaped societies and driven historical events.

4. Military History: This subject deals with the history of warfare and military strategies. It explores how conflicts have been fought and resolved, and how these have influenced the course of history.

5. Social History: This subject focuses on the societal aspects of history, including the study of various social structures and changes over time. It provides insights into how societies have evolved and how social dynamics have influenced historical events.

6. Art History: This subject explores the history of art, including different art movements, artists, and their works. It offers an understanding of how art reflects and influences societies and cultures.

7. Ancient History: This subject deals with the study of ancient civilizations and cultures. It delves into the origins of human societies and explores how ancient civilizations have shaped the world we live in today.

Historians, in their quest for knowledge of the past, employ a variety of historical sources. These include written documents, oral accounts, art and material artifacts, and ecological markers. They engage in debates to determine which narrative best explains an event, as well as the significance of different causes and effects.

The study of history is not just about learning the past; it’s about understanding our present and shaping our future. It provides us with a lens to understand the world and our place in it. By studying history, we can learn from the mistakes of the past and work towards a better future, ensuring that the lessons of history guide our actions and decisions.

Revolutions that Shaped the World

Beginning of Modern Age

• The part of history which falls between5th to 15th century ADis generally considered asmiddle ages or medieval history.This periodbegan with fall of Roman Empire and continued till age of discovery, renaissance with emergence of lots of thinkers, writers and artists. Along with these developments this age also witnessed profound religious beliefs where all aspects of their life revolved around religion.
• Nearly all thinkers emphasized on merging philosophy with religion which were more ofauthoritarian, rather being informative and rational.This made the society highly vulnerable to exploitation to various sectors of the society.Feudalism was central featureof this age which prevailed in the Europe.

Feudalism

• Feudalism is derived from the word‘feud’, which means‘conditional ownership of land’.It is defined as thesystem of political organization prevailing in Europe from the 9th to about the 15 th centuryAD having as its basis the relation of lord to vassal with all land held in fee and as chief characteristics homage, the service of tenants under arms and in court, warship and forfeiture. In other words Feudalism is asystem of land ownership and duties. With feudalism, all the land in a kingdom was of the king ’s. However, the king would give some of the land to the lords or nobles who fought for him.
• TheFeudal Hierarchy consisted of the King at the top.Noblemen below the Kingwere also arranged in a hierarchy of overlords and subordinate lords. Every nobleman was a vassal, of and only of his overlord.
• This hierarchical system wasun-breachable i.e. a lower Lord would only follow commands of his immediate overlord and not of Lords further higher in the hierarchy.
• Further, any Lord himself was not the direct owner of the land under him. He held land in the name of his overlord. Thus legally,all territory belonged to the King. Each Lord had his own soldiers and was the sole authority in his estate. Thus there was no central authority in functional terms and King was a central authority only in legal terms resulting in very little political unity.
• The main reason for development of feudalism waslack of a single central political authorityin Western Europe as it had disintegrated into many small and big kingdoms. In such a system the local lords started controlling the affairs of the society and in turn became more powerful than the King himself. This period spanned till the beginning of 16th century.
• The kings found it difficult to administer vast areas of land. As a result, they parceled out their land among their vassals who assured the military assistance during the hour of need in return of the land ownership and enjoyment of rights which were transferred to them along with the land ownership.
• It served its purpose for all those centuries quite well as the feudal lords became the guarantee of security of life and property of the people who inhibited their Fiefdom. However, with the passage of time, it outlived its utility when new changes took place in political, social and economic fields.

Causes of Decline of Feudalism

• There are multiple problems which resulted in the decline of Feudalism. Since feudalism was based on the idea of land tenure paid for by governmental work, every process that tended to alter this adjustment tended also to displace feudalism. And also, feudalism had overreached its utility and outlived its necessity. Hence, decline followed when new changes took place.
• Some of the main reasons for the decline of feudalism are:

Hundred Years’ War

• Considerable manpower was a major requirement for the success of feudalism. Vassals and serfs worked the manor year in and year out, bound by law to a lifetime of labor.
• But when war broke out between England and France in 1337,both nations undertook an unprecedented military buildup. This marked the start of the Hundred Years’ War, a series of intermittent conflicts that lasted until 1543.
• In both countries, the army swelled its ranks with feudal labourers. This led to increase in the value of commoners who was thought with much needed military skills which further resulted in undermining the manorial system.

Black Death (1348-49)

• Thebubonic plague broke out in Europe in 1340’ s. This plague spread northwards from Italy and the bacterial infection known as the Black Death claimedat least a third of Western Europe’s total population.
• With the young men of France and England off at war, agricultural output was already declining. Now there was a new challenge facing feudalism. Manor after manor suffered devastating losses.
• Conditions were so severe that despite the law that running away was punishable by law, a huge number of laborers ran away to larger cities.

Political Changes

• Feudalism was a coercive system that granted few individual liberties. Ancient laws kept peasants tied to the land, making their labor compulsory. Yet over time,concepts of individual rightsgradually gained footing, especially in England. The12th century reforms of Henry II, for instance, expanded the legal rights of a person facing trial. In 1215, King John was forced to approve the Magna Carta, a document obligating the crown to uphold common law.
• Eighty years later,Edward I finally extended parliamentary membership to commoners. These developments gradually made the concept of agricultural servitude appear inexcusable.

Social Unrest

• By the 1350s,war and disease had reduced Europe’s population to the point that peasant labour had become quite valuable. Yet conditions for the serfs themselves remained largely unchanged. They were still heavily taxed on wages which were kept artificially low. Unable to survive in these circumstances, Europe’s peasants revolted.
• Between the 1350s and the 1390s, uprisings took place in England, Flanders (Dutch speaking northern portion of present Belgium), France, Italy, Germany and Spain. After an English revolt in 1381, Richard II promised to abolish serfdom. Though he later failed to keep his word, serfdom nonetheless died out in the next century.

Liberation of the Serfs

• Theliberation of the serfs due to enormous growth in trade and commence also greatly contributed to the decline of feudalism. With the growth of trade and commerce a number of new cities and towns grew which provided new opportunities for work. The serfs got an opportunity to free themselves of the feudal lords by taking up work in the new towns.

Holy Wars

• In 1095, the Pope joined the Byzantine emperor in calling for a war in the name of God to liberate the Holy Land. Between 1095 and 1291, western European Christians planned and fought wars against Muslim cities on thecoastal plains of the eastern Mediterranean (Levant).These wars were later designated asCrusades.
• The Crusades greatly contributed to the decline of the feudal system. As a result of these wars theEuropeans learnt theuse of gun-powder from the Muslims. The discovery of gunpowder greatly undermined the importance of the feudal castles. As a result it was no more possible for the feudal lords to take shelter in these castles and defy the authority of the king.

Other Causes

• Many other causes also led to decline of feudalism like:
  • The Crusades and travel during the Middle Ages opened new trade options to England
  • England started to move from land based economy to a money based economy
  • The Peasants Revolt – Peasants realized their worth and demanded changes . Charters were granted but ignored by nobles
  • More trade saw the growth of more towns
  • Peasants moved away from the country into towns they were eventually allowed to buy their freedom
  • Land was rented and the rights of lords over labour decreased
  • The Feudal Levy was unpopular and as time went by Nobles preferred to pay the King rather than to fight and raise troops
  • Armed men were paid a wage and Medieval warfare was financed by taxes and loans
  • Nobles became weaker – the Kings took back their lands and power.

Role of Church

• In the late medieval period,there was an urge for the direct experience with God, whether through private, interior ecstasy or mystical illumination. Christ and the apostles presented an image of radical simplicity, and using the life of Christ as a model to be imitated, individuals began to organize themselves into apostolic communities. There was a growing sense of religion and a need to be with Christ and his followers.
• During the middle Ages, the Church was a major part of everyday life.The Church served to give people spiritual guidance and it served as their government as well. TheChurch was the single most dominant institution in medieval life, its influence pervading almost every aspect of people’s lives.
• Its religious observances gave shape to the calendar; its sacramental rituals marked important moments in an individual’s life ( including baptism, confirmation, marriage, penance, holy orders and the last rites); and its teachings underpinned mainstream beliefs about ethics, the meaning of life and the afterlife. Now,in the 20th century, the church’s role has diminished.

Pope

• Theheadquarters of the Western Church was Rome. For most of the medieval period, this was the chief residence of the Pope.
• The Western Church maintained the status and powers in all spheres of human life.

Church System

• TheCatholic Church had its own laws, owned lands given to it by rulers, and could levy taxes. It was thus avery powerful institutionwhichdid not depend on the king. At the head of the western Church was the Pope. Fie lived in Rome. The Christians in Europe were guided bybishops and clerics– who constituted thefirst ‘order’.Most villages had their own church, where people assembled every Sunday to listen to the sermon by the priest and to pray together.
• Thefirst major division arose in the year 1054, known as the Great Eastern Schism(schism means division). Out of this schism, Christianity has been divided into two,Eastern Church and Western Church.The Eastern Church named itself asEastern Orthodox Church, and the Western Church retained its name as Roman Catholic Church. The former refused to accept the central authority of the Pope over Universal Christianity.
• The success of the Church as a dominant force can be attributed in no small measure to its highly developed organization, which over the course of the middle ages developed asophisticated system of governance, law and economy. The institutional Church can be divided into two unequal parts: the larger of the two was thesecular church,and the other was theregular church, so called because its members followed amonastic rule.The secular church, attended by the general population, was carved into regions governed by archbishops, and their territory was in turn divided into areas known asdiocese, which were administered by bishops.

Religious Orders

• Numerous other religious orders, some stricter and others more lenient, proliferated in the Middle Ages. These can be categorized asmonastic orders, mendicant orders, and military orders.

Pilgrimages

• In middle Ages, bodily remains of saints and objects associated with them were the star attractions for pilgrims. Pilgrimages to holy places enabled the faithful to atone from their sins, seek miraculous cures and extend their experience of the world.

Monasteries

• Initially, the Monasteries wereinstitutes of high learning and monks worked to uplift people’s moral life and for welfare of the poor. But soon,corruption crept into the monasteries. In the Middle Ages (600 AD to 1500 AD) the Church’s evils took the form of:
  • Money for Church posts + Money for every ritual + Church owned and amassed huge property.
  • Money for removing sins. For example, the Church started selling “Letters of Indulgence” which upon their purchase removed the need for doing pilgrimages for removal of sins.
  • The Church was the only institution for education in the medieval time but becoming a Monk was the only future prospect this education offered. They taught in Latin which was not understood by the common man.
  • Church made “once in a year ” confession of sins to the Father compulsory and the breach of this rule mandated punishment .
  • Pope, nuns, bishops etc., became corrupt and lived like princes.
• Logic, Reason and Science were discouraged. There waswide belief in witches, superstition and magic.Church becameviolent. It ordered burning of people who opposed its ideas about God, religion and even the physical phenomena. This was done on charges of “Heresy”.Many scientific thinkers became the victims of Church’ s punishmentswhen they proposed scientific theorieswhich invalidated the principles (like the Earth is Flat, or, the whole universe revolves around the Earth), which the Church propagated to glorify God. Many of them were burnt alive after being classified as witches and as possessed by evil spirits.

Dissent

• The Church aggressively struggled against dissenters within and outside. Christians who disagreed with theChurch’s teachings were considered heretics, and could be physically punished or even killed. Those of other faiths were also treated harshly.
• Jews who lived within Christian territories were, at best, tolerated, though episodes of extreme anti-Semitism are numerous; even after Jews were expelled from England.The series of Crusades against non-Christians and heretics began in 1095, with an armed mission to the Middle East. Themiddle ages was also often characterized as the ‘Age of Faith’.

Education

• In middle ages, Pope decreed that the Church would build cathedral schools, institutions designed to educate future members of the clergy. Their success led to the development of European universities in the 12th century, whose educational scope quickly broadened beyond religious training into medicine and law.
• The growth of universities meant that more men required for preparatory education in Latin, which was mandatory in university educations at the time. To meet this need, the church also created primary education facilities that prepared men for university study. Through the creation of universities and institutions of primary education, the Catholic Church spread literacy and promoted the growth of intellectual curiosity.

Economy

• In 1095, Pope Urban II urged Europeans to declare war on the Middle East and recapture Jerusalem from the Muslims, beginning aseries of Crusades that lasted until the 13th century. The Crusades were generally unsuccessful, but resulted in enormous economic changes in Europe. Change occurred because crusading was extremely expensive and required wealthy Europeans to spend vast amounts of money.
• To fund a crusade, churches and noblemen sold property and took loans. They also paid the lower classes for services. These actions resulted in a major redistribution of European wealth. At the same time, new trade routes through the Middle East, the formation of guilds and the creation of modern lending institutions led to the birth of modern economies and the formation of the middle class.

Society

• As the Crusades began at the end of the 11th century, commerce began to develop in Europe. In response, European society experienced the emergence of two new classes of people: the middle class and the extremely poor.
• The Catholic Church moved to aggressively protect the poor, insisting they were entitled to basic rights. The Church attempted to protect these by exempting the poor from court fees in ecclesiastic courts and by providing free legal counsel, food, shelter and alms.

Religion

• Religion was far more important in almost every area of medieval life. The vast majority of people in Europe followed theChristian religion under the authority of the Roman Catholic Church.
• The church in that era had great wealth, political power and influence over community life, art, architecture and education.

Renaissance

• The term Renaissance stands forall those intellectual upheavals which were discernible towards the end of the middle ages. In French, the term renaissance means‘rebirth’ which perfectly described the intellectual and economic changes.
• It was a period in European history, from the 14th to the 17th century, regarded as thecultural bridge between the middle ages and modern history. It started as a cultural movement in Italy in the late medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe, marking the beginning of the Early Modern Age.
• The changes signify the decline of feudalism, the study of ancient literature, the rise of nation states, the beginning of modern science, the inventions of moving letters, gunpowder and compass , the discovery of new trade routes, the introduction of primary capitalism etc.
• The intellectual basis of the Renaissance was its own invented version of humanism, derived from the rediscovery of classical Greek philosophy, such as that of Protagoras, who said that“Man is the measure of all things.” This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, politics , science and literature .
• Early examples were the development of perspective technique in oil painting and the recycled knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of metal movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the late 15th century, the changes of the Renaissance were not uniformly experienced across Europe.

Causes of Renaissance

Crusades

• Themilitary expeditions undertaken in Europe from the end of 11th to end of 13 th century to recover the holy land, Jerusalem, from the Muslim were called crusades; the Christians came in contact with the enlightened people of the east. It is an obvious fact that in the eastern countries, the Arabs had enriched their civilization by establishing contacts with the Greek and Indian civilization.
• Thecrusades encouraged voyages and study of Geography. The Europeans sailed on long voyages. The crusaders met strange people and got new ideas from them. When they came back, the intellectual horizon of the crusaders had broadened very much. They helped in ending European segregation.

Commercial Prosperity

• The crusaders establishedbusiness links with eastern countries. Many European businessmen settled on the coast of Asia Minor and Jerusalem .
• As a result, there was a tremendousincrease in business which fostered the spirit of Renaissance.

Paper and the Printing Press

• The Europeans learnt paper-making from the Arabs in the middle ages. In the mid 15th century,Johannes Gutenberg of Germany invented a type machine which many call a prototype of the modern printing press. The invention of printing press paved the way for intellectual growth.
• The monopoly of distinctive persons over knowledge came to an end.With the dissemination of knowledge through books, superstitions and orthodox practices weakened and self confidence increased in peopleand with it the desire for literacy as well as the drive for cultural awareness intensified. They became aware of their rights.
• The greatness of man revealed to the European society the path of reason parting with superstitions.

Capture of Constantinople by the Turks

• In 1453, the Turks captured Constantinople, the capital of East Roman Empire. With it, the Eastern Roman Empire fell forever and in consequence of it, the great learning that spread in the Western Europe heralded the arrival of new epoch.

Rise of the Mongolian Empire

• The vast Mongolian Empire contributed to the birth of Renaissance. After the death of Changez Khan, Kubla Khan established a vast and powerful empire. The Mongolian state council was graced and glorified by the cardinals of pope, the Buddhist monks of India, the craftsmen of Paris, Italy and China, and the mathematicians and astrologers of India.
• In that period, Perking ( Cambul) and Samarkand became international centers. Therefore East and West came in close contact and the Europeans were greatly influenced by the exchange of views and learning as well with close contact with people of various countries.

Encouragement for New Art and Literature

• Many kings, nobles and merchants encouraged new literature and art.Francis I, the ruler of France, Henry VIII, the king of England, Charles V of Spain, Sigismund I, the king of Polandinvited many persons having new ideas to their courts and patronised them.
• Loronjode-Medicci, the ruler of Florenceinvited many artists to his court and decorated his palace with new paintings. The progressive idea of these rulers galvanised Renaissance.

Expressions of Renaissance

Humanism

• In many ways humanism was not a philosophy but a method of learning. In contrast to the medieval scholastic mode, which focused on resolving contradictions between authors, humanists would study ancient texts in the original and appraise them through a combination of reasoning and empirical evidence. Humanist education was based on the study of five humanities: poetry, grammar , history, moral philosophy and rhetoric .
• Humanist scholars shaped the intellectual landscape throughout the early modern period. Political philosophers such as Niccolas Machiavelli and Thomas More revived the ideas of Greek and Roman thinkers and applied them in critiques of contemporary government. The purpose of humanism was to create a universal man whose personality combined intellectual and physical excellence and who was capable of functioning honorably in virtually any situation.

Arts

• The development of perspective was part of a wider trend towards realism in the arts. Painters developed other techniques , studying light, shadow , optics and geometry , famously in the case of Leonardo Da Vinci he studied human anatomy to find the mechanism underlying gestures and expressions .
• Underlying these changes in artistic method was a renewed desire to depict the beauty of nature and to unravel the axioms of aesthetics, with the works of Leonardo , Michelangelo and Raphael representing artistic pinnacles that were much imitated by other artists . Other notable artists include Sandro Botticelli, working for the Medici in Florence , Donatello, another Florentine, and Titian in Venice, among others.

Science

• Science and art were intermingled in the early Renaissance. A suitable environment had developed to question scientific doctrine. The discovery in 1492 of the new world by Christopher Columbus challenged the classical world view . The works of Ptolemy (in geography ) and Galen ( in medicine) were found to not always match everyday observations.
• Another important development was in the process for discovery , the scientific method, focusing on empirical evidence and the importance of mathematics, while discarding Aristotelian science. Early and influential proponents of these ideas included Copernicus , Galileo , and Francis Bacon.
• Francis Bacon advised that truth was to be discerned by experiment and is known as the father of modern science. In his book ‘ On the Revolution of the Celestial Bodies’, Copernicus opined that Sun is static. The Earth and other planets revolve around the sun in a circle. His view was contrary to the medieval belief that the Earth was the centre of the universe.
• The view of Copernicus was supported by the famous German Scientist John Kepler. He slightly changed the view of Kepler and opined that the Earth and other planets revolve around the Sun in ‘elliptical’ rather than ‘circular Path. This created a storm in the field of thinking.
• Another great scientist of this age was Galileo of Italy . He invented Telescope. Through that instrument he proved before his enthusiastic audience that the theory of Copernicus was absolutely true. He further opined and proved that the ‘Milky Way’ consists of stars.
• A great Scientist of repute of that age was Sir Isaac Newton of England. In his famous book ‘Principia’, he stated about the ‘Law of Gravitation’. His Theory of Motion ’ also made him famous as a great scientist . The ‘causes of tides ’ were also discovered by him.
• In case of human anatomy , the Science of the Renaissance period brought revolutionary change. Vesalius , a medical scientist described about various parts of human body like skeleton , cartilage, muscles. Veins, arteries, digestive and reproductive systems, lungs and brain.
• William Harvey of England had discovered the ‘ process of blood circulation’. He pointed out that blood circulates from heart to the arteries and then to veins and back to heart. His contribution was undoubtedly a boon to the modern medical science.
• The new scientific method led to great contributions in the fields of astronomy , physics, biology, and anatomy. Applied innovation also extended to commerce.

Religion

• The new ideals of humanism , although more secular in some aspects , developed against a Christian backdrop . Much, if not most, of the new art was commissioned by or in dedication to the Church. However , the Renaissance had a profound effect on contemporary theology particularly in the way people perceived the relationship between man and God .
• Many of the period’s foremost theologians were followers of the humanist method, including Martin Luther and John Calvin. Churchmen such as Erasmus and Luther proposed reform to the Church, often based on humanist textual criticism of the New Testament . In October 1517 Luther published the 95 Theses, challenging Papal authority and criticizing its perceived corruption, particularly with regard to instances of sold indulgences.
• The 95 Theses led to the Reformation, a break with the Roman Catholic Church that previously claimed hegemony in Western Europe. Humanism and the Renaissance therefore played a direct role in sparking the Reformation, as well as in many other contemporaneous religious debates and conflicts.

Architecture

• The Architecture of Italy was largely influenced by the spirit of Renaissance. The builders of this time constructed many churches , palaces and massive buildings following the style and pattern of ancient Greece and Rome. The pointed arches of the Churches and Palaces were substituted by round arches, domes or by the plain lines of the Greek temples.
• ‘Florence’, a city of Italy became the nerve centre of artworld. The ‘ St Peter’s Church of Rome’ the ‘Cathedral of Milan’ and the ‘Palaces of Venice and Florence ’ were some of the remarkable specimens of Renaissance architecture. In due course of time , Renaissance architecture spread to France and Spain.

Painting

• Renaissance painters used more realistic depictions than aesthetic aspects. The human figure was drawn as realistically as possible , often with backgrounds of nature . There was less emphasis on religious art. Science helped artists understand the concept of perspective , where objects that were drawn smaller actually looked as if they were farther away. Use of light made figures look real. Famous artists of the time include these men:
  • Botticelliwas a member of the famous Medici family in Florence, Italy. He painted three frescos in the Vatican ’ s Sistine Chapel. Fresco is the art or technique of painting on a moist plaster surface with colors ground up in water or a lime water mixture.
  • Leonardo da Vinciis considered to have one of the greatest minds of all times. He was an architect , musician, engineer , scientist , mathematician, botanist and inventor. He painted the famous ‘Mona Lisa’ and The Last Supper ’.
  • Michelangelois considered by some to be the greatest artist and sculptor who ever lived. He was a great leader of the Italian Renaissance. His most famous work and his greatest glory were painting the Sistine Chapel at the Vatican in Rome. The ceiling shows the history of the Old Testament and includes more than 300 figures . He set the standards for sculpting, painting, poetry and architecture .
• Michelangelo’s talent as a sculptor rivaled even the ancient Greeks. He was also a great painter and architect.
• Raphael who was a contemporary of above two was famous for his paintings of Madonna, the mother of Jesus Christ.

Music

• Science also played a part in the creation of music . Musicians learned how the pitch changes by lengthening or shortening the size of the string on stringed instruments.
• Once again , symmetry became a part of the music they created . Musicians studied the Greek drama and tried to create music that would go with the words of their stories. This was the beginning of opera , where music and theatre are combined.

Literature

• Renaissance literature started with a renewed interest in the classical Greek and Roman learning. The invention of the printing press and the weakening of the Catholic Church’s influence on the daily lives of the people , among other things , enabled Renaissance writers to express their beliefs in new ways . There was an explosion of writing , some of which is deemed the greatest of all time, by these authors and more:
  • The first notable creation in this direction was Dante’s ‘ Divine Comedy ’ . This book was written in Italian language and it was meant for the common people. In the book he describes about the heaven, hell and the other world . It introduced new themes like love of one’s country , love of nature as well as the role of individual .
  • Martin Luther ’sbook ‘Ninety-Five Theses ’ had a great effect on people. He changed Christianity forever by telling about the abuses of the church by the clergy. He is sometimes known as the “father of Protestantism. ”
  • Nicolaus Copernicuswrote a book that proved that the sun did not move around the earth every 24 hours . His book revealed that the earth was not the center of the universe.
  • Niccolo Machiavelliwrote that there is no place for religion or morality in politics in his book The Prince’. It is believed that’power politics ’ had its roots in this book .
  • William Shakespeareis considered one of the greatest writers who ever lived. He wrote at least 37 plays and 154 sonnets .

Reformation

• Reformation started as a protest movement against the Catholic Church and to reform the same. This religious revolution took place in the Western church in 16 th century. It was a popular movement that desired a change in the entire church system.
• The reformers targeted certain major areas of change. They sought to improve moral lives of the Clergy. Its greatest leaders undoubtedly were Martin Luther and John Calvin. Having far-reaching political, economic , and social effects , the Reformation became the basis for the founding of Protestantism. The reformation occurred in two parts: Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter Reformation.

Evils of Catholic Church

• Battle Monarchy/Supremacy of the Pope,
• Corrupt practices of the Church like, Offices were sold to highest bidder , Sale of letter of indulgence ( passport for heaven) ,
• Use of Latin language only (No common languages used),
• Persecution of heresy and heretics,
• Crusades,
• Anti-Semitism in medieval Europe ,
• Relations with the Orthodox Church,
• Sexual abuse controversy etc.

Protestant Reformation

• The practices of the Catholic religion were questioned during the Reformation and the beliefs of men such as Martin Luther (1483-1546) prompted a new religion called Protestantism.
• The term ‘Protestant’ was adopted when supporters of Martin Luther formally protested against efforts to limit the spread of Luther’s new ideas. It had many Reformational protests that wanted to do away with the hegemony and corrupt practices of the Roman Catholic Church.

Martin Luther

• The Protestant Reformation started in earnest in 1516. In 1517 Martin Luther wrote a scholastic objection protesting against the Catholic Church practice of indulgences which came to be known as the 95 Theses.
• In the‘Ninety-Five Theses’Luther denied that the Pope had the right to forgive sins. He nailed a copy of the book to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg which were subsequently translated from German into Latin and were printed and distributed across Europe leading to the Protestant Reformation.

Catholic Counter Reformation

• Counter-Reformation, also called Catholic Reformation, or Catholic Revival, in the history of Christianity, the Roman Catholic efforts directed in the 16th and early 17th centuries both against the Protestant Reformation and toward internal renewal; the Counter-Reformation took place during roughly the same period as theProtestant Reformation.
• Early calls for reform grew out of criticism of the worldly attitudes and policies of the Renaissance popes and many of the clergy. New religious orders and other groups were founded to affect a religious renewal.Pope Paul III ( reigned 1534-49) is considered to be the first Pope of the Counter-Reformation. It was he who in 1545 convened theCouncil of Trent.The council, which met intermittently until 1563, responded emphatically to the issues at hand. Its doctrinal teaching was a reaction against the Lutheran emphasis on the role of faith and God’s grace and against Protestant teaching on the number and nature of the sacraments.
• Disciplinary reforms attacked the corruption of the clergy. There was an attempt to regulate the training of candidates for the priesthood; measures were taken against luxurious living on the part of the clergy, the appointment of relatives to church office, and the absence of bishops from their dioceses. The Catholic reformation was a strong reaffirmation of the doctrine and structure of the medieval church, presiding over reforms that would preserve its effectiveness.

Exploration and Discovery of New Lands

America

• During the 15th and 16th centuries, leaders of several European nations sponsored expeditions abroad in the hope that explorers would find great wealth and vast undiscovered lands. The Portuguese were the earliest participants in this“Age of Discovery.”Other European nations, particularly Spain, were eager to share in the seemingly limitless riches of the“Far East”. By the end of the 15th century,Spain’s “ Reconquista”- the expulsion of Jews and Muslims out of the kingdom after centuries of war-was complete , and the nation turned its attention to exploration and conquest in other areas of the world.
• At the end of the 15th century , it was nearly impossible to reach Asia from Europe by land. The route was long and arduous, and encounters with hostile armies were difficult to avoid. Portuguese explorers solved this problem by taking to the sea: They sailed south along the West African coast and around the Cape of Good Hope. Columbus and his crew reached the island of Hispaniola after three months in the Atlantic Ocean. Although Columbus believed he had reached Asia, he had actually discovered the entire continent of North America.
• Thus ‘A new world’ was discovered by Columbus although accidentally. In 1500, Amerigo Vespucci was successful in preparing the maps of Atlantic Ocean and Asia which proved very useful both for the trade and navigation purposes.

India

• The plan for working on the searoute to India was charted by Portuguese as a cost saving measure in the trade with Asia and also an attempt to monopolize the spice trade.Prince Henry, the navigator of Portugal,encouraged sailors by making maps based on trips to the African coast. One man Bartholomew Diaz, had reached the point which the Portuguese named the Cape of good hope.
• ThePortuguese nobleman Vasco Da Gama (1460-1524) sailed from Lisbon in 1497 on a mission to reach India and open a sea route from Europe to the East. After sailing down the western coast of Africa and rounding the Cape of Good Hope, his expedition made numerous stops in Africa before reaching the trading post of Calicut, India, in May 1498. Vasco Da Gama received a hero’s welcome back in Portugal, and was sent on a second expedition to India in 1502, during which he brutally clashed with Muslim traders in the region.Two decades later, Vasco Da Gama again returned to India, this time as Portuguese viceroy.

Emergence of Trade and Trading Towns

• Although scholars have long debated the extent of trade and urban life during the early Middle Ages, there is general agreement that increased trade activity was evident before the crusades.
• The center of this northern trade system was the county of Flanders. By 1050 Flemish artisans were producing a surplus of woolen cloth of such fine quality that it was in great demand. Baltic furs, honey and forest products, and British tin and raw wool were exchanged for Flemish cloth. From the south by way of Italy came oriental luxury goods silks, sugar, and spices.
• A catalyst of the medieval commercial revolution was the opening of the Mediterranean trading area. In the eleventh century, Normans and Italians broke the Muslim hold on the eastern Mediterranean, and the First Crusade revived trade with the Near East. Arab vessels brought luxury goods from the East to ports on the Persian Gulf and Red Sea .
• From there they were shipped by caravan to Alexandria, Acre, and Joppa, and from those ports the merchants of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa transported the goods to Italy on their way to the markets of Europe.
• Other trade routes from Asia came overland, passing through Baghdad and Damascus and on to ports, such as Tyre and Sidon, in the crusader states. The easiest route north from the Mediterranean was by Marseilles and up the Rhone valley.
• Early in the fourteenth century two more major trade lanes developed within Europe. An all – sea route connected the Mediterranean with northern Europe via the Strait of Gibraltar. The old overland route from northern Italy through the Alpine passes to central Europe was also developed.
• From Venice and other northern Italian cities, trade flowed through such passes as the Brenner, sharply reducing the business of the Rhone valley route and the famous fairs of Champagne.

Factors for the Rise of Towns

• The resurgence of trade in Europe was a prime cause of the revival of towns ; the towns arose because of trade, but they also stimulated trade by providing greater markets and by producing goods for the merchants to sell. In this revival, geography played a significant role. Rivers, important to the evolution of ancient civilizations, were also important in the development of medieval towns. They were natural highways on which articles of commerce could be easily transported. Another factor contributing to the rise of towns was population growth. In Britain, for example, the population more than tripled between 1066 and 1350. The reasons for this rapid increase in population are varied.
• The ending of bloody foreign invasions and in some areas the stabilization of feudal society were contributing factors. More important was an increase in the food production brought about by the cultivation of wastelands, clearing of forests, and draining of marshes. Another factor in which merchant and crafts guilds helped was to establish trade and towns. Emergence of a new class evolved in Europe a powerful, independent, and self -assured group, whose interest in trade was to revolutionize social, economic, and political history. They helped to establish new trades and trading towns.

Rise of Nation States

• 13th century Europe had fewer nations than that of modern Europe. Europe was then ruled by thousands of feudal lords and political units or the states that we are familiar with now did not exist.
• In 12th century there came into being the Holy Roman Empire. It was claimed to be a universal empire, though it included mainly Germany and Italy and the emperor’s control even in these areas was limited.
• The process of political developments in the final form of which we see in the present-day world – independent and sovereign nation states – started during the Renaissance and the Reformation.

English Revolution

• English Revolution has been used to describe two different events in English history. The first to be so called by Whig historians was the Glorious Revolution of 1688, whereby James II was replaced by William III and Mary II as monarch and a constitutional monarchy was established.
• In the twentieth century, however, Marxist historians introduced the term“English Revolution” to describe the period of the English Civil Wars and Commonwealth period (1640-1660), in which Parliament challenged King Charles I’s authority, engaged in civil conflict against his forces, and executed him in 1649. This was followed by a ten-year period of bourgeois republican government, the “Commonwealth”, before monarchy was restored in the shape of Charles’ son, Charles II, in 1660.
• This interpretation suggests that the ‘English Revolution’ was the final act in the long process of reform and consolidation by Parliament to achieve a balanced constitutional monarchy in Britain, and laws were made that pointed towards freedom.

American Revolution

• TheAmerican Revolutionary War (1775-83)was a warfought between Great Britain and the 13 British colonies in North America.It was a war against thedeteriorating situationsof the American colonists under the British rule.
• The factors behind the American Revolution could be traced back to the year 1763. During this theBritish leaders began to strengthen their imperial desires. This resulted in disruption of once harmonious relations between Britain and its North American colonies. Britain’s land policy prohibiting settlement in the West irritated colonists. The most serious problem was the need for money to support the empire. This led them to pursue harsh taxation policies. Attempts through theSugar Act, the Stamp Act, and the Townshend Actsto raise money rather than control trade met with growing resistance in the colonies.
• Tensions increased further after Parliament passed the Coercive Acts and the First Continental Congress took the first steps toward independence from Britain. Before the colonies gained independence, they had to fight a long and bitter war.After a long timeline of political, social and militia fighting, America won its independence in late 18th century, forming the United States of America. But the road ahead was also not simple.
• Further clashes erupted between the Northern and the Southern states of the United States, on the question of slavery and sovereignty of the states. This led to acivil war (1861-65), outcome of which wasabolition of slavery and reunificationof the United States of America.
• To sum up, it could be said that the revolution had astrong impact on the world. It influenced theliberal thought flow across the globeand gave impetus to the further struggles against repression.

American Revolution

• TheAmerican Revolution (1775-83)was also known as theUnited States War of Independence or American Revolutionary War. This watershed event was anoutcome of the repressive and tyrannous policies (like Mercantilism, excessive taxation, etc.) of Britainin its North American colonies mainly after second half of 18th century.
• Thirteen of Great Britain’s colonies (along the eastern seaboard of North America) rebelled in the American Revolutionary War, primarily over representation, local laws and tax issues.These Thirteen colonies (New Hampshire, Massachusetts , Connecticut , Rhode Island, New York , New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland , Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia) came together to establish the United States of America, which was recognized internationally with the signing of theTreaty of Paris on September 03, 1783.

Prelude

• European nations (French, Spanish, Dutch and Russians)came to the Americas to increase their wealth and broaden their influence over the world affairs. TheSpanish were among the first Europeans to explore the New World and the first to settle in what is now the United States.

Britain in 16th and 17th Century

• The Sixteenth-century England was a tumultuous place. They could make more money fromselling woolthan from selling food. Many of the nation’s landowners wereconverting farmers’ fields into pastures for sheep. This led to afood shortage. At the same time, many agricultural workers lost their jobs .
• Great Britain wanted to establish colonies in the Americas in order to grow the British Empire and to counter the Spanish. The English hoped to find wealth, create new jobs, and establish trade ports along the coast of the Americas.
• The16th century was also the age of Mercantilism. Mercantilism or Mercantile Capitalism was an extremelycompetitive economic philosophythat pushed European nations to acquire as many colonies as they could. As a result,for the most part, the English colonies in North America were business ventures. They provided an outlet for England’s surplus population and (in some cases) more religious freedom than England did, but their primary purpose was to make money for their sponsors.

Establishment of British Colonialism in America

• In 1607, the Virginia Company of London, an English trading company, made the first permanent English settlement in North America at Jamestown, Virginia. The Company operated under aroyal charter, granted by King James I,which assured the original settlers that they would have all liberties, franchises and immunities as if they had been ‘abiding and born within England’. As the time passed more and more places were colonized.
• These colonies were often divided up intothree regionsincluding theNew England Colonies(Connecticut, Massachusetts Bay, New Hampshire, Rhode Island),the Middle Colonies(Delaware, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania),and the Southern Colonies(Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia).

Relation between Britain and its American Colonies before 1760s

• By 1760, England and Scotland had united into the Kingdom of Great Britain. Their settlements in North America had grown to thirteen thriving colonies.
• These colonies shared strong cultural, economic, and political ties to the mother country. Each colony enjoyed a certain amount of autonomy (i.e., Self -Governance).

Seven Years Wars (1756-63)

• While theBritish mercantilism created an environment for resentment among the White Americans, the Seven Years Wars created conditions which became the immediate trigger for the American Revolution.
• TheSeven Years Wars (1756-63) were the series of wars going on between Great Britain and its allies against France and its allies. It was a global conflict known in America as theFrench and Indian War.
• In theearly 1750s, French expansion into the Ohio River valley repeatedly brought France into armed conflict with the British colonies.In 1756, British suffered a series of defeats against the French and their broad network of Native American alliances.
• However, in 1757, British Prime MinisterWilliam Pitt, in the urge of imperial expansion (feasible after victory against the French), borrowed heavily to fund an expanded war effort.Pitt financed Prussia’s struggle against France and her allies in Europe and reimbursed the colonies for the raising of armies in North America.
• By 1760, the French had been expelled from Canada, and by 1763 all of France ’s allies in Europe had either made a separate peace with Prussia or had been defeated. In addition,Spanish attempts to ‘aid France in the Americas had failed, and France also suffered defeats against British forces in India.France lost to Great Britain most of its North American colonial possessions, known as New France. This included Canada and all of its land east of the Mississippi River, including the Ohio Valley, to Great Britain.

Aftermath of the Seven Years Wars

• Geo-Political and Financial Troubles:
  • At the end of the war, Great Britain faced a number of serious geo-political and financial problems. The first problem was the need to govern and protect vast new areas won during the long conflict.
  • The British now had responsibility for Canada and the areas east of the Mississippi River. These former French colonies included thousands of Indians and many French-speaking Catholics who had no desire to become subjects of the British crown or to live under English common law. Great Britain also had control over East and West Florida which was taken over by Spain, an ally of France, after the war .
  • Financing the administration of these new areas was also a critical problem facing the British government at the end of the war.
• Britain’s Attitudinal Change for its American Colonies:
  • The war’s end also marked a change of attitudes among people in Great Britain and in its American colonies. During the war, the British government was unable to persuade the colonial legislatures to satisfactorily contribute to the expenses of the war. With the French defeat, the British government ignored the need to accommodate the concerns of the colonial legislatures regarding monetary issues.
  • At the same time, the removal of the French threat in North America gave the American colonists a new sense of self-confidence. Many colonists questioned why the British government thought it needed to leave an army in North America to protect its colonies from Indian uprisings.
• Tussle with the Indians Living in ‘New France’:
  • After France and her Indian allies were defeated, British settlers, in order to look for good farm land, started moving towards the other side of theAppalachian Mountainin large numbers. The native Indian tribes viewed these settlers, who wanted to claim the land, differently than the French fur traders with whom they had lived for many years.
  • The British, like the French, had enjoyed the support of a number of Indian tribes and, during the war, the chiefs of these tribes had received generous gifts from the British government. Gift giving was considered by the British and the French to be an integral part of maintaining good relations with the tribes. As military operations in North America successfully concluded, General Amherst, believing that he no longer needed their support, decided to discontinue this gift – giving practice to Indian chiefs. He also made the decision to cut back on trading gunpowder to the Indians. The Indians felt that the British were treating them as a conquered people and not as former allies.
  • In May 1763, Pontiac, an Ottawa leader, led a number of Indian tribes in the area of the Great Lakes in an uprising against British forces and settlers along the frontier. While a few British forts on the frontier held out, over eight were taken. Hundreds of British soldiers were killed, and the settlers who survived the attacks fled from their farms on the frontier to the safe areas in the east. Commonly known asPontiac ’s Rebellion,theconflict lasted until 1764. Though peace treaties ended the fighting, the possibility of further conflicts with the Indians strongly affected Britain’s decision to leave a standing army in America after the Seven Years War .

Causes of Revolt Against British

• While no one event could be pointed to as the actual cause of the revolution,the war began as a disagreement over the way in which Great Britain treated the colonies versus the way the colonies felt they should be treated.
• TheBritish wanted to squeeze out as much money as possibleout of its Thirteen North American Colonies. The British enacted various laws which were like a‘one-way street’ i.e., the Acts of Parliament benefited only the British but not the colonies.
• TheAmericans were neither given the same rights as the British people, nor did they have any representation in the British Parliament to present their points of view. Americans felt they deserved all the rights of Englishmen. The British, on the other hand, felt that the colonies were created to be used in the way that best suited the crown and parliament. This conflict is embodied in one of the rallying cries of the American Revolution: ‘No Taxation Without Representation’. The colonists protested and their protests led them to the American Road to Revolution and were responsible for some of the causes of the American Revolutionary War.
• The specific events instigating the warProclamation of 1763, Intolerable acts, Stamp acts, etc., would be discussed in detail later on.
• The general causes that engendered the Revolutionary war could be summed up under the following heads:
  • Vexatious Taxation without Parliamentary Representation:
    • No representation of the American colonists in the British Parliament, coupled with the burdensome taxation of the British ( like that on Molasses, Paper, Sugar and Tea) urged the colonists to raise their voices, against the British, under the banner of‘No Taxation nwithout Representation’.
  • No Free Trade for Colonies:
    • The Americans were prevented from developing their indigenous industry. The colonies were barred by British law from using non-British ship for trade. The export of certain raw material goods from American colonies could only be made to Britain.
    • Further, a very heavy duty was levied on import of non- British goods into America. Even if some trade ships were allowed to go to somewhere else they were mandated to take their route via England (policy of Mercantile Capitalism or Mercantilism).
  • Unlimited Search and Seizure:
    • The British officers in the colonies were endowed with the ‘Writs of Assistance’ to help discourage smuggling. These writs gave officers the power to search any residence or building without warning or supervision. This widely abused policy would ultimately inspire the Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.
  • Direct Control of Criminal Justice System:
    • As distrust of colonial authorities grew over a period of decades, the British government began to deny colonists jury trials and placed both verdicts and punishments in the hands of judges.
    • Later on, the British government also took measures to ensure that those judges would be selected, paid and supervised by British, not colonial authorities.
  • Destruction of Local Self-government(s):
    • There were several locally elected governments in the American colonies. The British ensured that these locally elected governments by the colonists didn’t gain autonomy. Attempts were made to thwart the autonomy even in those arenas which had no direct bearing on the colonial government.
  • Extraneous Executive Powers to the British Parliamentover the Colonies:
    • The British Parliament came up with a draconian tool in its hand called ‘Bills of Attainder’. Using this Parliament could declare any person (by law or fiat ) to be“tainted”imprisoning or even executing him and confiscating all of his property without trial.
  • Immunity and Impunity to the Corrupt and Cruel BritishOfficers:
    • Since its colonial inception Britain followed an unjust and covert policy of fig leafing their corrupt and abusive officials as against their colonial subjects. But several instances revealed that this prejudiced policy of the British, one among them was the Boston Massacre trial. Eight British soldiers stood accused, but they were defended by the future president John Adams who won acquittal for six of them and the equivalent of a dishonorable discharge for the other two. British leaders were concerned to pass a law mandating that any British officers accused of an offense be tried in England, where witnesses would be hard to find, rather than in the colonies.
  • Forced Quartering of Soldiers:
    • As per the colonial policy of the British, hosting facilities for the British soldiers were to be looked after by the colonies, but the British government mandated a new requirement as colonial dissent began to grow. Individual colonists would be required to let British soldiers live in their private homes. This was as traumatic as it was inconvenient in the wake of the Boston Massacre, and given the particular sense of conflict in the pre-Revolutionary years. The Third Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was written to prohibit the forced quartering of soldiers. Closing up of theBoston Port, 1773.

Role of Enlightenment Thinkers

• Be itFrench Revolutionor American Revolution,direct or indirect influences of the Enlightenment and its thinkers’ ideals could easily be sensed. Enlightenment thinkers questioned traditional authority and embraced the notion that humanity could be improved through rational change.
• Theroots of Enlightenment could easily be traced in many of the ideas of the American Revolution. It was a movement that focused mostly onfreedom of speech, equality, freedom of press, and religious tolerance.Concepts such as freedom from oppression, natural rights, and new ways of thinking about governmental structure were derived directly from the Enlightenment philosophers such as Locke and laid the foundations for both colonial and modern America.
• All aspects of life, even religion, were affected by the Enlightenmentand many key figures from American history such asThomas Jeffersonwere greatly influenced by the movement . The early Americans wished to have their own government that was based on Enlightenment principles.
• Both during and after the American Revolution many of the core ideals of the Enlightenment were the basis for monumental tracts such as the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution.

John Locke

• John Locke gave the idea of‘Enlightened Self-Interest’, according to whichman is rational enough to think about the larger good.Although he agreed with Hobbes regarding the self-interested nature of humans, he was much more optimistic about man’s ability to use reason to avoid tyranny.
• According to Locke, a ruler gains authority through the consent of the governed. In any society, people are endowed with certain natural rights to life, liberty, and property. The duty of that government is to protect the natural rights of the people.
• If the government fails to protect these rights, its citizens would have the right to overthrow that government. This idea deeply influenced Thomas Jefferson as he drafted the ‘Declaration of Independence’.
• In his enormously renowned political theory, Locke presented the idea of governmental checks and balances, which became a foundation for the U.S. Constitution .

Thomas Paine

• InJanuary 1776 , Thomas Paine published Common Sense, the first pamphlet to advocate American independence. Here he made a persuasive and passionate argument to the colonists that the cause of independence was just and urgent. It outlined ideas like:superiority of republican government over a monarchical system, equality of rights among all citizens, etc. Central to his ideas was the message that to understand the nature of politics, all it takes is just common sense.
• As the author of these influential pamphlets, he aimed to inspire the colonists to declare independence from Britain. He had a greater impact on the common people, who, after reading his works, became much more supportive of the Revolutionary cause.

Benjamin Franklin

• Benjamin Franklin traveled frequently between the American colonies and Europe during the Enlightenment and facilitated anexchange of ideasbetween them. Franklin exerted profound influence on the formation the new government of the United states.
• During the American Revolution, he served in theSecond Continental Congressand helped draft theDeclaration of Independence in 1776. He also negotiated the1783 Treaty of Paristhat ended the Revolutionary War (1775- 83).In 1787, in his final significant act of public service, he was a delegate to the convention that produced theU. S. Constitution.

Montesquieu

• Philosophers like Voltaire Montesquieu, and Rousseau wereoptimistic about democracy. Their ideas encouraged the questioning of absolute monarchs, like the Bourbon family that ruled France.
• In one of his most influential books,The Spirit of Laws’,Montesquieu expanded John Locke’s political study. He incorporated theideas of division of state and separation of powers.

Major Events

• Starting as a political upheaval of the thirteen colonies against the British Empire, the American Revolution led to the creation of the United States as an independent state. Numerous important landmarks were part of the whole tenure of the American Revolution.
• They could be elaborated as under:

Proclamation of 1763

• TheProclamation of 1763 was issued by King George III in October 1763,following Great Britain’s acquisition of French territory in North America after the end of the Seven Years War. This Proclamation forbade all settlements past a line drawn along the Appalachian Mountains. It also requiredsettlers who had moved west of the Appalachians to return to the eastern side of the mountains. It rendered worthless land grants given by the British government to Americans who fought for the crown against France.
• Great Britain recognized that one of the factors contributing toPontiac’s Rebellionhad been the unchecked movement of land-hungry settlers into the area west of the Appalachian Mountains. Britain also realized that a plan was needed to develop the large areas won during the war in an orderly way.
• While the division line established by the proclamation was never meant to be permanent, the decree angered the colonists.
• TheProclamation of 1763 also troubled many of the wealthiest and most powerful men in the colonies, because many of these men had invested heavily in speculative land companies.These companies hoped to make money by obtaining title to large tracts of western land from the British government and reselling the land to settlers as they moved across the Appalachian Mountains . While new treaties between the Indians and British agents opened up large tracts for development fairly quickly after the war , the land companies did not recover. The wealthy men who had invested in these companies suffered significant financial losses.

Stamp Act, 1765

• TheStamp Act was passed by the British Parliament in 1765. It was the first direct tax imposed on the British colonies in North America.
• In search of more money to pay the costs of maintaining an army in North America, the then Prime Minister George Grenville proposed a Stamp Act for the colonies. Thenew tax required all legal documents including commercial contracts, newspapers, wills, marriage licenses, diplomas , pamphlets, and playing cardsin the American colonies to carry a tax stamp.
• The aim of the tax wasto help finance for the British troops in the colonies. But the British also sought to reduce their debt which increased dramatically after theSeven Years Wars.
• The colonists were outraged because they had no say in the taxes that were to be imposed on them and how the raised money was to be spent .
• Under the severe violence and intense pressure, Britain repealed the Act in 1766. The news of its repeal gave the American colonists confidence that the British government understood and respected their position regarding taxes.

Rockingham Declaration and Townshend Duties, 1767

• As imposition of new taxes irked the people in American colonies, people refused to pay taxes, hurting British trade. Hence,the Rockingham declaration stated that the British Parliament’s authority was same in America as in Britain and asserted Parliament’s authority to pass laws that were binding on the American colonies.
  • Also, the Townshend Acts were introduced by the British Parliament. These Acts were a number of British acts passed since 1767. Thepurpose of the Townshend Acts was:
    • To increase revenue in the colonies in order to pay the salaries of governors and judges. This was to ensure their loyalty to Great Britain .
    • To create a more effective means of enforcing compliance with trade regulations.
    • To punish the province of New York for failing to comply with the Quartering Act of 1765 .
    • To establish the precedent that the British Parliament has the right to tax the colonies.
• In July 1766, new duties were proposed, they are: the Revenue Act, 1767, the Indemnity Act, 1767, the Commissioners of Customs Act, 1767, the Vice Admiralty Court Act, 1768, and the New York Restraining Act, 1767.
• The colonies, in North America, immediately protested the Townshend duties. As already used in the move against the Stamp Act, the colonies again started non- importation of British goods as an effective tool of protest. This resistance prompted the occupation of Boston by British troops in 1768, which eventually resulted in the Boston Massacre of 1770.
• But, lastly the colonists again succeeded in their petitions. In 1770, the Parliament repealed all of the Townshend duties except The Tea Tax which was maintained to demonstrate Parliament ’ s supremacy over the colonies.

Tea Act of 1773

• In 1770, the British Parliament repealed most of the Townshend duties. The American merchants began trading again with the British merchants .
• The British government passed the Tea Act in May 1773so asto help the financial conditions of the ailing East India Company(faced economic collapse after the Seven Years War).The act eliminated the customs duty on company’s tea and permitted its direct export to America.Dropping the customs duty would allow the East India Company to sell its tea for a cost less than smuggled Dutch tea. Some of the colonists saw the act as a cunning way to get the Americans to pay the hated Townshend duty on tea by undercutting the price of smuggled Dutch tea.

Boston Tea Party, 1773

• TheBoston Tea Party was an iconic event of the American history. In this incidententire shipment of tea belonging to the British East India Company were thrown into Boston Harbor by American patriots disguised as Native Indians. It was a political protest against both:a tax on tea(taxation without representation) andthe perceived monopolyof the East India Company.
• Angry mobs and the Sons of Liberty forced ships carrying company’s tea to return to England without unloading. In Massachusetts, however, the Royal Governor was determined to let the ships deposit their cargoes and appropriate duties to be honored. On the night of December 16, 1773, Samuel Adams and the Sons of Liberty boarded these ships in the Boston harbor and threw the chests of tea overboard.
• TheBritish government reacted harshly to the incident of Boston Tea Party. The British government decided to punish Boston and the people of Massachusetts with a series of acts which came to be known as theIntolerable Acts or the Coercive Acts of 1774.

Intolerable Acts of 1774

• The Intolerable Acts were five laws that were passed, in 1774, by the British Parliament , against the American colonies. These laws were enacted in order to punish the port of Boston and the people of Massachusetts for the Boston Tea party. The British Parliament, under the leadership of Lord North , passed the first of these laws, the Boston Port Act, in March 1774. These four laws were:
  • Boston Port Act, 1774:This act closed the port of Boston until the price of the dumped tea was recovered.
  • Administration of Justice Act, 1774:This act allowed the royal governor of a colony to move trials to other colonies or even to England if he feared that juries in those colonies wouldn’t judge a case fairly.
  • Massachusetts Government Act, 1774:It abolished the popularly elected upper council of the colony and replaced them with council appointed by the King . The act also gave the Massachusetts royal governor broad powers to remove various judges, marshals, and justices of the peace . Additionally , many civil offices that had previously been chosen by election were now to be appointed by the royal governor . Town meetings were forbidden without consent of the governor .
  • Quartering Act, 1774:This law allowed a colonial governor to house British soldiers in unoccupied houses and barns . The colonists protested against these Intolerable acts. The closing of the port of Boston indiscriminately punished the people. This further instigated the feeling of patriotism in the minds and hearts of many colonists. The number of loyalists, people who supported the British government , declined dramatically.

First Philadelphia Convention, 1774

• TheFirst Continental Congress, also known as the First Philadelphia Convention, was held in 1774 to consider ways of redressing colonial grievances.
  • It was ameeting of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies. It washeld in response to the passage of the Intolerable acts.
• The Congress created the Continental Association, a system for implementing a trade boycott of British goods. The Congress also agreed to a broad Declaration of Rights which strongly stated that only the American colonies had the right to tax themselves. Before adjourning, the Congress also agreed to reconvene in May 1775 to decide if further action was necessary.

American War of Independence

• TheAmerican Revolutionary War, also known as the American War of Independence, was fought between 1775 to 1783. The Revolutionary War began with the confrontation between British troops and local militia (or Minutemen) at Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts, on 19 April 1775.
• By late 1774, provisional governments, few known asCommittees of Safety, acquired control over government duties in numerous colonies. These provisional governments urged local militias to get armed and trained .
• In September 1774, British General Thomas Gage, the new military governor of Massachusetts, seized the munitions stored at Charles Town and Cambridge. He also began to fortify his position in the city of Boston.
• In retaliation, some of the colonists seized gunpowder from Fort William and Mary at New Castle, New Hampshire, in December 1774.Hence, Parliament, in February 1775, declared Massachusetts in a state of rebellion.It authorized General Gage to use force to cow down the rebellion and orders were passed to disarm and arrest rebel leaders.
• British troops left Boston to seize the munitions stored by the colonists in Concord. Some of the colonists who were spying on the movements of British troops sent warnings to the fellow colonists. As a result, local militia ( or Minutemen) assembled along the road from Boston to Lexington.
• This led to a conflict between the British soldiers and the minutemen in Lexington. This incident proved as a spark which led to general war.
• Coincidentally, the day after the Battles of Lexington and Concord, the Royal Governor of Virginia seized the gunpowder stored in the magazine in Williamsburg. An angry mob, demanding the return of the gunpowder, descended on the Governor’s Palace. Although, with several efforts, violence was averted. The British government had decided it was time to take decisive step(s) to end the growing rebellion.

Second Philadelphia Convention, 1775

• TheSecond Continental Congress was a convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies.It was reconvened shortly after the Battles of Lexington and Concord and the gunpowder incident in Williamsburg. This Congress authorized thecreation of the Continental Army. In June 1775, George Washington was appointed commander of the American forces.
• Thesecond Congress led to the Declaration of American Independence on July 4, 1775. In this, the thirteen colonies accepted common agenda of unity which led to the birth of the United States of America. Thomas Jefferson declared that humanism and welfare are parameters of government.

Treaty of Paris, 1783

• TheTreaty of Paris of 1783 formally ended the American War of independence. TheBritish formally recognized American independence and ceded most of its territoryeast of the Mississippi River to the United States, doubling the size of the new nation and paving the way for westward expansion.
• Terms of the Treaty
  • Secured fishing rights to the Grand Banks and other waters off the British-Canadian coastline for American boats.
  • Opened up the Mississippi River to navigation by citizens of both the United States and Great Britain. Resolved issues with American debts owed to British creditors.
  • Provided for fair treatment of American citizens who had remained loyal to Great Britain during the war.
• Consequence of the Treaty
  • Though the Treaty of Paris, 1783 formally ended the war for independence between America and Great Britain, tensions continued to rise between the two nations over issues that remained unresolved by the treaty.
  • The British, for instance, refused to relinquish several of its forts in the former Northwest Territory, while the Americans, for their part, continued to confiscate property from citizens that had remained loyal to the British Crown during the war.

Third Philadelphia Convention, 1787

• In May 1787, delegates representing states gathered at Philadelphia’s Pennsylvania State House for the Constitutional Convention. Drafting of the Declaration of Independence and the signing of the Articles of Confederation also took place in the same building. This building is now known asIndependence Hall. Rather than amending the Articles of Confederation the assembly took the task of drawing up a new scheme of government. George Washington was elected convention president.
• During three months of debate, the delegates devised a brilliant federal system characterized by an intricate system of checks and balances.
• Abicameral legislature with proportional representation in the lower house (House of Representatives) and equal representation of the states in the upper house (Senate) was setup.
• Andon September 17, 1787, the Constitution of the United States of America was signed by 38 of the 41 delegates present at the conclusion of the convention. It was also dictated byArticle VIIthat the document would not become binding until it was ratified by nine of the 13 states .

American Civil War (1861-65)

• TheAmerican Civil war was a four-year war between the United States and 11 Southern states that seceded from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America. It resulted from long-standing differences and unresolved questions in the United States Constitution. Thewar resolved two fundamental questions:
  • Whether the United States was to be a dissolvable confederation of sovereign states or an indivisible nation with a sovereign national government; and,
  • Whether this nation, born of a declaration that all men were created with an equal right to liberty , would continue to exist as the largest slave holding country in the world.
• TheCivil War was a watershed landmark in America’s historical consciousness.Northern victory in the war preserved the United States as one nation and ended the institution of slavery that had divided the country from its beginning.
• Between 1815 and 1861 the economy of the Northern states wasrapidly modernizing and diversifying. Although agriculture remained the dominant sector in the North, industrialization had taken root there. They invested heavily in expanding their transportation system like canals, roads, steamboats, and railroads. Investments had also been done in banking and insurance, communications networks like newspapers, magazines, books, and telegraph. In contrast, the Southern economy was based primarily on plantation producing commercial crops such as cotton. They relied on slaves as the main labor force. They invested their money mainly in slaves.
• In 1860, Abraham Lincoln won election as the first Republican president on a platform pledging to keep slavery out of the territories. Following this, seven slave states in the South (as indicated in map above) seceded and formed a new nation , the Confederate States of America. The Lincoln administration and most of the Northern people refused to recognize the legitimacy of secession. They feared that it would discredit democracy and create a wrong precedent that would eventually lead to the balkanization of the United States.
• Another incident happened, in April 1861, at Fort Sumter in Charleston Bay.The Confederate army opened fire on the federal garrison and forced it to lower the American flag in surrender. Lincoln called out the militia to suppress this insurrection. Four more slave states seceded and joined the Confederacy. By the end of 1861, numerous armed men confronted each other along a line stretching from Virginia to Missouri. Several battles had already taken place like in Virginia, Missouri , and North Carolina. The Union Navy established a base in South Carolina for a blockade to shut off the Confederacy ’ s access to the outside world.
• With a long tenure of disastrous war since 1861, all the principal Confederate armies surrendered by the spring of 1865.Finally, with the capture of the fleeing Confederate President Jefferson Davis in Georgia on May 10, 1865, resistance collapsed and the war ended.

Consequences of American Revolution

The American War of Independence is regarded as one of the greatest landmarks in the history of the world since it had far-reaching results:

Political Changes

• It gave birth to a new nation, that is, the United States of America. Under the Treaty of Paris (1783) England acknowledged the independence of her American colonies.
• A few years after the Revolution, the old Federal Constitution, that is the Articles of Confederations that the Continental Congress had drawn up during the war, was changed. It was replaced by a new constitution that a special body of delegates framed at Philadelphia. It is referred to as theConstitutional Convention of 1787.
• The new American State had many features. It was arepublic and not a monarchy. Instead of being a unitary state it was a federation. It was ademocracy rather than a dictatorship. It could be regarded as theworld’s first democratic federal republic.
• The world also received the example of awritten constitution. Further, another praiseworthy achievement was theseparation of the church and the state.
• The government was divided intothree branchesinstead of one. The new government had a
  • Congress, the legislative body ;
  • an executive branch, with the President at its head,
  • anda judicial branch, at the head of which was the Supreme Court.
    • The three branches of the national government, under the constitution of 1787, which came into effect in 1789 , were expected to ’check and balance’ one another .
• Owing to their experience under the old constitution,the framers of the new one in 1787, gave thefederal government greater powers such as taxation and regulation of commerce.

Geopolitical Changes

• France regained two small colonies, Tobago in the West Indies and Senegal in West Africa. Spain recovered Minorca and Florida.
• England lost her colonies in America and her national debt increased to a great extent. Flowever England could defeat and destroy the Spanish and French fleets , and thus retain her naval supremacy.
• France lost heavily during the American Revolution. Owing to her heavy naval and military expenditures, the royal treasury in France grew bankrupt . Further bankruptcy soon led to the fall of the French monarchy, since the Frenchmen had helped the Americans in their revolt against a King. They were now prepared to revolt against their own king.

Significance of American Revolution

• The American Revolution had a tremendous effect on Europe. It not only served as an inspiration for France , but also demonstrated that the liberal political ideas of the Enlightenment were more than mere utterances of intellectuals.
• Three major events of the American Revolution had great influence on Europe :
  • Signing the Declaration of Independence
  • Implementing the ideas of Enlightenment
  • Forming the U. S constitution
    • By declaring independence, America demonstrated that it was possible to overthrow “old regimes ”. This was the first time a colony had rebelled and successfully asserted its rights to self-government and nationhood . This inspired many European nations and colonies to revolt.
    • The United States had created a new social contract in the form of its Constitution, in which they realized the ideas of Enlightenment. The natural rights of man, and the ideas of liberty , equality, and freedom of religion , were no longer unrealistic Utopian ideals .
    • The framers of U. S Constitution rejected the Greek model of civic republicanism. They distinguished between the notion of “ democracy” and their own proposed system of representative democracy . This made the bourgeoisie of Europe reconsider their own government and monarchic systems.
• The culmination of all these factors was seen in the French Revolution, where the revolutionaries formed their own slogan,“Liberty , Equality , Fraternity”. Europeans obtained information about the American Revolution from soldiers returning from America. French soldiers returned to France with ideas of individual liberty , popular sovereignty and the notion of republicanism.
• The American Revolution helped to strengthen the idea of the ‘ right of revolution’, the right of a people to overthrow an oppressive government. Thus it expressed more fully , the principles of the English revolutions of the 17 th century.
• The American revolutionaries served as a source of great inspiration to the French and others who were being oppressed by autocrats or imperialists. The countries of the east , which were under the control of the imperialists , regarded the Revolution as a good lesson for them. Thus thespirit of nationalism began to spread with the birth of the United States of America.
  • The principles of freedom and democracy were upheld through slogans such as ‘ No taxation without representation’ and ’Give me liberty or give me death’, which highly influenced the minds of people all over the world. The rulers of all the countries also learnt that they would not be permitted to rule , unless they served the needs of the people. Thus kings attempted to improve their administration.
  • America gave rise to great leaders such as Thomas Paine, Patrick Henry, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin and Alexander Hamilton. The hero of the War of Independence , namely George Washington, was honored by being made the first President born in a farmer ’s family.
  • The impact of the American Revolution was a different story for women, African Americans and Native Americans . The women did not have any legal rights and political representation. Similarly , many African Americans had fully believed the new government would defend their rights as well. Unfortunately, it would be 80 years before the Civil War and the Constitution prohibited slavery outright , but the seeds of change had been planted.
• The American Revolution produced a new outlook among its people that would have ramifications long into the future. Groups excluded from immediate equality such as slaves and women would draw their later inspirations from revolutionary sentiments. Americans began to feel that their fight for liberty was a global fight . Future democracies would model their governments on ours. There are few events that would shake the world order like the success of the American patriotic cause .

French Revolution

• In 1789 France was the most populated nation in Europe and had beengrowing in wealth and prestige since the time ofLouis XIV.Despite this economic growth, it was still avery backward nation socially and politically:
  • socially,because it was still divided intofeudal classes of people(clergy–those who pray, nobles–those who fight, and the peasants–those who work);
  • politically, because they were still ruled by anabsolute monarchwho believed in the divine right of kings.
• Thesocial, political and economic conditionsof France in late eighteenth century engendered a revolution whichcompletely destroyed the feudal order and its state apparatus. The revolution in its course establishednew principles of politics and democracy which had seminal effect on the minds of the people of Europe and the world.
• It became asymbol of revolutionary action by masses and inspired many subsequent movements. Theideas of liberty, equality and fraternityingrained in the democratic societies world over have their provenance in this revolution.

Causes of French Revolution

Social Causes

• Feudal Society:The French society and its institutions before 1789 has been usually described as the Old Regime. The French society in the eighteenth century was feudal in nature, a remnant of the middle ages. The society was uncompromisingly stratified.
• Three Estates:The French society was divided into three Estates. The first estate consisted of theclergy, the second estate of thenobilityand the third estate of thebourgeoisie, urban workers, and peasants. The first two estates enjoyed many privileges by birth and were also exempted from taxation.
• Unequal Access to Resources:The French society primarily comprised peasants, around 90 per cent of the total population. But only a small number of them owned the land they cultivated as about60 per cent of the land was owned by nobles, clergy and richer membersof the third estate. Moreover, the moderate growth and prosperity witnessed in eighteenth century France was unevenly disturbed.
• Feudal Privileges and Taxes:The nobles were entitled to feudal dues, which they extracted from the peasants. The peasants were forced to render services to the nobles (Lords), either by working in his house and fields or by serving in his army. The Church too extracted its share of taxes (tithes) from the peasants.
• Educated Middle Class:Eighteenth century France witnessed the emergence of Educated middle class, who earned their wealth through an expanding overseas trade, manufacture of goods, employment as administrative officials and by practicing profession. These educated individuals began to question the privileges available to the first two estates. The group provided the much needed leadership to the peasants and workers.

Political

• Centralization of Power:The royal authority was sustained by theories of divine right which rejected any form of resistance with utmost ruthlessness. An attempt to centralize the authority had been on. The Kings, who alone could call the meeting of the Estates General, a political body of the three estates, had not called its meeting since 1614. Moreover, the exceptionally expanded state apparatus had virtually destroyed the role of representative institutions. Tensions were mounting between centralizing and decentralizing pressures.
• Rift between Nobility and Crown:The crown had deprived the nobility of its political power but left them with various privileges. They were bitterly hostile to the growing power of the royal government.

Economic Causes

• Brink of Bankruptcy:Years of participation in numerouslengthy and costly conflicts (wars)by France during the seventeenth and eighteenth century had drained financial resource of the country. This coupled with wasteful spending byKing Louis XVI ( 1754-93)and his predecessor had left the country on the brink of bankruptcy.
• American War of Independence:Already debt ridden country added more than billion livers (unit of currency in France discontinued in 1794) of debt byits involvement in the American war of independence. The lenders began to charge an interest of 10 per cent on the loans and an increasing fraction of the government’ s revenue was being spent on interest payment.
• Defective Tax Structure:A defective tax structure where in the nobility and the clergy were exempted from payment of taxes and the burden to finance the royal coffers fell upon rest of the population (commoners) had been becoming a matter of resentment .
• Inflation:In general, theproduction of grains could not keep pace with increased demand due to increase in country’s population pushing up prices of bread and grain, which mattered most to the people and had a bearing on the public order.
  • An increase in grain and bread prices due to bad harvests in early 1770’s angered the people, who rioted at several places. The situation became worse due to harsh weather as witnessed from 1787, when a cereal crisis on account of catastrophic hailstorm, harsh winter and drought pushed up the prices of grains and bread between 50 and 100 per cent.
• Subsistence Crisis:It has been held that France during the Old Regime (used to describe the society and institutions of France before 1789) frequently witnessed situations when thewages of the workers did not keep pace with the rise in prices of bread, the staple diet of the people.
• Financial Reform Package:Another event which further worsened the situation was a proposed financial reform package byCharles Alexanders de Calonne(Louis XVI’s controller general of finance )in 1786. The package proposed animposition of a universal land tax, such that the privileged classes would no longer be exempted. The package did not come through and Calonne recommended the calling of National Assembly.

Role of Enlightenment Thinkers

• Therole of enlightenment thinkersin the French revolution has been a matter of debate among the historians. Some historians contend that the presence of philosophers and their ideas brought about the replacement of old regime with the new order. It is held that although the peasants and workers had participated in revolts against increasing taxes and food scarcity in the past, they lacked the means and programme to carry out full-scale measures to change the existing social and economic order which was provided by the enlightenment thinkers and the new middle class. However, the thinkers did not espouse revolution.
• Theenlightenment thinkers questioned the customary arrangements which benefited a few and advocated confronting them for human progress, which according to them involved growthindividual self-expression, elimination of authority and privilege based on birth, and guild regulations. These ideas were disseminated through political discussion, clubs, academic societies and salons.
• It is important to note that the salons, the elegant drawing rooms of the wealthy urban elite, served as the gathering of philosophers and guests. It served as the rallying point of reform-minded people likeMirabeau, Robespierre and Sieyes.

John Locke

• In hisTwo Treaties of Government, John Locke sought torefute the doctrine of divine and absolute right of the Monarch. He along with Rousseau questioned theidea of privilege by birth and advocated a society based on freedom and equal laws and opportunities for all.

Montesquieu

• Montesquieu believed that where government wasmore liberaland where people thought independently, society would be less devoted to religious ritual and more devoted to morality. Hecriticized France’s monarchical absolutism and the Church, offending authorities but adding to his popularity.
• InThe Spirit of the Laws, he proposed theidea of division of power within the government between the legislative, the executive and the judiciary(as had been established in America after its independence from Britain) to prevent any one organ of the government from becoming despotic.

Jean Jacques Rousseau

• As per Edmund Burke, he was thechief ideologueof the French Revolution. Rousseau popularized the idea that theKings did not have the right to ‘absolute’ rule and that the government was a ‘social contract’ between people and the Kind(their representative).He questioned the traditional base of political, social and economic authority.
• Hisconcept of ‘sovereignty’ of people and ‘general will’made the leaders of the revolt feel that the society as whole should decide its own interest. His democratic principle of one individual one vote was proposed by the members of the third Estate as an alternative to the extant voting system, conducted by the assembly as whole.
• Liberty, he wrote, was not to be found in any existing form of government, it was in the hearts of free men. He described existing laws as “always useful to those who own and as injurious to those who do not”. And such laws, he wrote, “give the weak new burdens, the strong new powers and irretrievably destroy natural freedom”.

Outbreak of French Revolution

Meeting of the Estates General

• France’s population had changed considerably since Thenon-aristocratic members of the Third Estate now represented 98 percent of the people but could still be outvoted by the other two bodies.In the lead-up to the May 5 meeting, the Third Estate began to mobilize support for equal representation and the abolishment of the noble veto-in other words,they wanted voting by head and not by status. While all of the orders shared a common desire for fiscal and judicial reform as well as a more representative form of government, the nobles in particular were loath to give up the privileges they enjoyed under the traditional system.
• By the time the Estates-General convened at Versailles, the highly public debate over its voting process had erupted into hostility between the three orders, eclipsing the original purpose of the meeting and the authority of the man who had convened it.
• When the demand of equal voting for members of all the three estates were raised, talks over the procedure of the voting process stalled. Following this,on June 17, 1789, the third estate met alone and formally adopted the title of National Assembly.

Tennis Court Oath

• Theking ordered to lock the hallwhere the next meeting was scheduled to be held. Consequently, onJune 20, 1789, the third estate decided to meet in a nearby indoor tennis court.In the Tennis court meeting, members of the third estate took the so called ‘Tennis Court Oath’. In that oath members vowed not to disperse until constitutional reform had been achieved .
• Within a week, most of the clerical deputies and liberal nobles had joined them, and on June 27, 1789, Louis XVI reluctantly absorbed all three orders into the new assembly.

Fall of Bastille

• TheBastille fort had served as a royal armory and a prison and also was a symbol of the tyranny of the Bourbon monarchs.TheStorming of the Bastille fort occurred in Paris, on July 14, 1789. This watershed event of the fall of Bastille, now commemorated in France as a National Holiday, was considered as the start of the French Revolution.
• In June 1789, King Louis XVI surrounded Paris with troopsand dismissed Jacques Necker, a popular minister of state who had supported reforms. The dismissal of Jacques Necker sparked the feeling of distress among the people of France. The revolutionary ideas were continuously instigated by the revolutionary leaders which led to incessant rioting and looting by the mob.
• Bernard-Rene Jordan de Launay, the military governor of the Bastille,fearing an attack by the revolutionaries requested reinforcement which led to arrival of a company of the swiss mercenary soldiers. This led to abrupt broadcasting of the rumors of an impending military coup which engendered terror among the people of France.
• Apopular insurgency culminated on July 14, 1789 when rioters stormed the Bastille fortress in an attempt to secure gunpowder and weapons.
• The wave of revolutionary fervor and widespread hysteria quickly swept the countryside. Revolting against years of exploitation, peasants looted and burned the houses of tax collectors, landlords and elites. This agrarian insurrection which hastened the growing exodus of nobles from the country is known as theGreat Fear (started in mid of July 1789and continued till August).
• TheNational Assembly feared that the raging rural peasants would destroy all that the assembly had worked hard to attain. In an effort to quell the destruction, the assembly issued theAugust Decrees, which nullified many of the feudal obligations that the peasants had to their landlords.
• TheAugust Decrees were declared with an idea of calming the people and encouraging them towards civility. The August Decrees were revised several times during the next two years. Nevertheless, it could be inferred that theAugust Decrees paved the way for the Assembly to make the Declaration of the Rights of Man and citizen.

National Assembly

• National Assembly was thename of the revolutionary assembly formed by representatives of the Third Estate. Number of clerical deputies and liberal nobles had also joined them.
• They declared that they would not adjourn their gatherings until France had been given a new constitution(the National Assembly took an oath to force a new constitution on the king).Louis XVIattempted to thwart that initiative on June 23, 1789 by ordering the three estates to resume their separate deliberations. But in the face of determined resistance he reluctantly accepted unified deliberation and voting by the head(s). On July 9, 1789, the delegates to the Estates-General declared themselves the National Constituent Assembly.

Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen

• On August 26 , 1789, the assembly issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
  1. Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.
  2. The aim of every political association is the preservation of the natural and inalienable rights of man; these are liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression.
  3. The source of all sovereignty resides in the nation; no group or individual may exercise authority that does not come from the people.
  4. Liberty consists of the power to do whatever is not injurious to others.
  5. The law has the right to forbid only actions that are injurious to society.
  6. Law is the expression of the general will. All citizens have the right to participate in its formation, personally or through their representatives. All citizens are equal before it.
  7. No man may be accused, arrested or detained, except in cases determined by the law.
  8. Every citizen may speak, write and print freely; he must take responsibility for the abuse of such liberty in cases determined by the law.
  9. For the maintenance of the public force and for the expenses of administration a common tax is indispensable; it must be assessed equally on all citizens in proportion to their means.
  10. Since property is a sacred and inviolable right, no one may be deprived of it, unless a legally established public necessity requires it. In that case a just compensation must be given in advance.
• Analysis
  • It guaranteed due process in judicial matters.
  • It established sovereignty among the French people providing limited monarchy to France. Now the King had to share power with the elected Legislative Assembly, but he still retained his royal veto and the ability to select ministers.
  • The titles of the nobles were abolished.
  • New central and local courts were established.
  • Judges were to be elected.
  • Drastic action was also taken against the church. Absolute religious toleration was proclaimed.
  • The collection of titles by the church was abolished.
  • Measures were taken for the nationalization of church properties.
• Influenced by the thoughts of the era’s greatest minds, the themes found in the declaration made one thing resoundingly clear:every person was a Frenchman – and equal.The document proclaimed the assembly’s commitment to replace the ancien regime (the political and social system in France before the Revolution) with a system based on equal opportunity, freedom of speech, popular sovereignty and representative government.
• Although subsequent French constitutions, that the Revolution produced, would be overturned and generally ignored, but the themes of the Declaration of Rights of Man and of the Citizen would remain with the French citizenry in perpetuity.
• The Declaration, together with Magna Carta, the English Bill of Rights, and the United States Bill of Rights, inspired in large part the 1948 United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

French Revolutionary Wars (1792 – 1802)

• When the revolution broke out many of the nobles (called as French Emigres) managed to escape from France. Theycarried out propaganda against the revolution in France and tried to mobilize support from other countries. Austria and Prussia came forward to help them. King Leopold of Austria issued the famous Declaration of Pilnitz against the revolutionaries in August 1791. In this declaration, Austria and Prussia proposed that France put Louis XVI (who fled Paris with family in June 1791, captured near border with Austria) back to the throne. These countries were wary about the fact that the French people ’s revolutionary sentiment would infect their own citizens.
• InApril 1792, the newly elected legislative assembly declared war on Austria and Prussia believing that French Emigres were building counter-revolutionary alliances. It also hoped to spread its revolutionary ideals across Europe through warfare. Austria defeated the ill equipped revolutionary army. The wrath of the revolutionaries turned against the French king.In August 1792, the mob attacked the King’s palace at Tuileries (Paris).The mob brutally massacred the guards and besieged the royal palace.
• This was followed by the‘September Massacres’.During this, the Radicals at Paris, led by Georges Danton (a Jacobin who was executed for questioning the extremes of the Reign of Terror), massacred numerous suspected supporters of the French king. Facing the threat of the radicals, the members of the Legislative Assembly gave up the idea of a limited monarchy.They set aside theConstitution of 1791, declared the king deposed.
• The assembly was dissolved, calling for the election of a new legislature. After the dissolution of the Legislative Assembly, the National Convention met in 1792. Itabolished monarchy and declared France as a Republic. Around the same time, the French army won a war against Austria and Prussia (Battle of Valmy).
• InJanuary 1793, King Louis XVI was condemned to death for “conspiracy against the public liberty and the general safety” by a weak majority in Convention. This execution led to more wars with other European countries. The queen, Marie Antoinette, was also guillotined later on.
• When war went badly, prices rose and the sans-culottes (poor laborers and radical Jacobins) rioted and counterrevolutionary activities began in some regions. This encouraged the Jacobins to seize power through a parliamentary coup. An alliance of Jacobin and sansculottes elements thus became the effective centre of the new government. They instituted a series of radical measures, including the establishment of a new calendar and the eradication of Christianity.

Jacobins and Reign of Terror

• TheReign of Terror was the most violent phase of the French Revolution, a year -long period between the summers of 1793 and 1794. During this periodaround 50,000 French citizens were executed. Under the accusations of the counter-revolutionary activitieslarge number of suspected enemies of the revolution were guillotined by the thousands. This 10-month draconian phase was regarded as theBloody Reign of Terrorduring which the guillotine became the most potent political tool and repression the most vital political task .
• In April 1793, the National Convention created an administrative body called as the ‘Committee of Public Safety’. It was formed to supervise and expedite the work of the executive bodies of the Convention and of the government ministers appointed by the Convention. In July 1793, following the defeat at the Convention of the Girondins, the prominent leader of the radical Jacobin,Maximilien Robespierre, took the charge of the Committee.
• Heading the Committee of Public Safety Robespierre gained full powers to deal with the people causing the internal threats. He slowly gathered all control in his hands. As head of the committee, he decided who should be considered enemies of the republic. It was said that this committee often tried people in the morning and guillotined the same afternoon .
• The Reign of Terror brought an end to many prominent lives. Fearful of conspiracies against his life, Robespierre had argued for the execution of fellow revolutionary leaders like Jacques Hebert (the radical sans-culotte leader) and Georges Danton (a populist political leader). In consequence, however, his own popular support eroded markedly.
• OnJuly 27, 1794, the Thermidorian Reaction (a moderate phase in which the French people revolted against the reign of terror’s excesses) led to the arrest and execution of Robespierre.The new government was predominantly made up of Girondists who had survived the Terror. After taking power, they took revenge as well bypersecuting even those Jacobins who had helped to overthrow Robespierre. TheJacobin Club was banned. Many of its former members were executed in what was known as the White Terror .
• Anew Constitution was approved in August 1795 which created a ‘Directory’ and the first Bicameral Legislaturein the French History. The two houses were called the‘Council of Five Hundred ’ and the ‘Council of the Ancients’.
• TheDirectory was a five-member committee which replaced the Committee of Public Safety. It governed France from 1795 until it was overthrown by Napoleon Bonaparte replaced by the French Consulate.
• In its initial years, the Directory concentrated on ending the excesses of the Reign of Terror. It stopped the mass executions and measures were taken against exiled priests.
• The royalists were relaxed. The Jacobin political club was closed and the government crushed an armed uprising planned by the Jacobins. Also, before the constitution of the Directory, the French economy was in crisis. The treasury was empty, Assignat ( paper money) had fallen to a very low value. The Directory stopped printing assignats and took measures to restore the value of the money. But after few years the Directory riddled with huge corruption. Bickering and fighting within the Directory increasingly destabilized the country. This led to itsrepeal by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799.

Napoleon Bonaparte

Rise

• When the Royalists and Jacobins protested against the new regime, a young , energetic and a successfulGeneral named Napoleon Bonapartewas then at Paris. He was entrusted with the task ofdefending the Convention against the Parisian mob. He swiftly silenced the mob and began his brilliant career as a military general.
• The directory’s four years in power were riddled with financial crises, popular discontent, inefficiency and above all, political corruption. By the late 1790s, the directors relied almost entirely on the military to maintain their authority and had ceded much of their power to the generals in the field.
• OnNovember 9, 1799, as frustration with their leadership reached a fever pitch, Bonaparte signed a coup (Coup d’etat), abolishing the directory and appointing himself France’s ‘First Consul’. This event marked the end of French Revolution and thebeginning of the Napoleonic era. With the start of the Napoleonic era came numerous reforms like theContinental system, Napoleonic code, etc .

Napoleonic Code

• The Napoleonic code was a bunch of new laws created by Napoleon Bonaparte. These laws were concerned with the issues relating, inter alia, to property, colonial affairs, family, and individual rights. In 1800, General Napoleon Bonaparte started important task of taking a fresh look at France’s legal system. In 1804, he came up with and enacted a newlegal framework for France, known as the ‘Napoleonic Code’.
• In the pre-revolutionary legal order of France there was a diversity of laws. Each area had its own collection of customs. Different parts of France were governed by different laws, for instance, Roman law ( governing parts of south France ), Canon law, Customary law (under the feudal Frankish and the German Institutions), etc. This situation inspired Voltaire to observe that a traveler in France ‘changes his law almost as often as he changes his horses’.
• Despite efforts in the 16th and 17th centuries to organize and codify each of the local customary laws, there had been little success at national unification. Vested interests hindered efforts at codification, because reform would encroach upon the privileges accorded to the elites.
• The French Revolution not only set the stage but necessitated the building up of a new code of laws. Manors and the guilds had been destroyed, the power of the church had been suppressed, and the provinces had been transformed into subdivisions of the new national state . Demand for a new and uniform of law for the entire France was raised with the growing up of the national consciousness.
• Hence, Napoleon Bonaparte came up with this new set of Laws, features of which could be mentioned as:
  • All male citizens were made equal.
  • Feudal features like primogeniture, hereditary nobility , and class privileges were extinguished .
  • Civilian institutions were emancipated from ecclesiastical control.
  • It subordinated the family and women under the authority of men, deprived women of any individual rights, and reduced the rights of illegitimate children.
• The laws were applied to all territories under Napoleon’s control and were influential in several other European countries and in South America.

Socio-Political Reforms

• Napoleon called himself the child of Revolution.He was a supporter of the principles of Revolution, viz .,liberty, equality and fraternity, but he laid greater stress on equality than liberty. Napoleon said that the people of France demanded equality, for many people had been massacred in France due to liberty.
• Centralization of the Government:After becoming the first consul, he worked in such a way that all the powers were concentrated at one point . He centralized the government, putting control firmly in the hands of the national government. The Centralized government played a significant role in facilitating reforms in the field of education, taxation, religion, etc .
• Abolition of Class distinction:He completely abolished the distinction between the lower class and the upper class . Anybody could get the highest post in the government on the basis of merit. He got the cooperation of both the Jacobins and Girondists and pardoned the French emigres. Consequently, forty thousand families came back to France.
• Reforms in Education:In the field of education, Napoleon pursued a system of public education throughout France, as envisioned during the revolution. He setup University of France and separated the influence of Church from education. These reforms, however, were limited to boys only. Napoleon held backward views about education for girls and considered it not important for them.
• Reforms in Art and Literature:Napoleon was an ardent votary of art and encouraged it a lot. Napoleon asked the craftsmen of France to make beautiful articles, which led to the employment of fairly large sum of craftsmen. He also encouraged literature. Napoleon established the ‘Legion of Honor ’ in order to inject feeling of honor among the French people. The people were awarded and honored on the basis of their merit and not on that of birth.
• Financial Reforms:Napoleon realized the weaknesses of French financial infrastructure and made necessary changes to reform French economy. He introduced a system of tariffs and loans to strengthen local industry. He also laid the foundation of Bank of France to regulate currency and protect it against inflation. Roads, bridges and canals were built and repaired to facilitate trade and communications. Napoleon also provided food subsidies to keep the basic necessities of food at low prices. More employment opportunities were stimulated to cater for unemployed. Thus, Napoleon adopted multilateral approach to enhance economic development as well.
• Religious Reforms:
  • Napoleon brought the religion back to France after the atheistic years of the Revolution. He used to say that, ‘a state without a religion is like a vessel without a compass ’. But, according to him, The people must have a religion and that religion must be under the control of the government ’.
  • Napoleon Bonaparte signed an agreement with the Catholic Church in 1801. This was called as Concordat. In the Concordat , Napoleon redefined the status of the Roman Catholic Church in France. He ended the breach caused by the church reforms and confiscations enacted during the French Revolution. The educational institutions would be controlled by the state. No official of the Church was to be allowed to open educational institution without the prior permission of state. All the Bishops would be appointed by the Pope from the proposed list of the state.
  • The lower clergy were to be appointed by the Bishops. The Roman Catholic religion was recognised as the religion of the majority of French people. The Protestants and Jews were also given protection by the state.
  • Thus, the Church became a part of the state due to the Concordat, and Napoleon received the favors of his opponent Church.
  • While most of his reforms aligned perfectly with the ideals of Enlightenment and French revolution, there were some shortcomings as well. Napoleon refused to grant political rights to his people and freedom of speech was suppressed. Role of women was limited to household because of lack of education and unfair gender laws.

Continental System

• TheFrench had lost access to colonial markets because the British and allied navies prevented trading ships getting through.This affected the French Economy and its export market very badly. The Continental system was an attempt to reshape the French export market and its economy.
• Napoleon Bonaparte aimed to cripple Britain(regarded as the ‘merchant of the world’ or ‘nation of the shopkeepers’).
• Since direct assault on the island nation was out of the question because of its strong Navy, Napoleon decided to do so bydestroying British trade. Napoleon started building his own ships in prospect of building upFrance’s own manufacturing industry.
• TheContinental System began in 1806 with Napoleon’s Berlin Decree,which banned British ships from entering European ports. Britain made a concerted effort to undermine the Continental System by contracting out its shipments to neutral vessels. Napoleon next issued theMilan Decree, in December 1807, aimed against smuggling, stated that neutral ships that stopped in Britain before landing in Europe were subject to confiscation.
• Napoleon, to some extent, was successful in gaining support of the European nations againstthe Britain because some way or the other nearly every European nation was envious of huge extent of Great Britain’s empire. Having an edge over the naval power the world over, Britain started naval blockade against the European nations. This further led to disruption of the internal trade across the Europe.

Analysis

• Though the Continental System was disquieting Britain, it alsoproved disastrous for Napoleon , because it backfired on him. Its impacts on France and the Europe could be summed up as under:
  • French customs revenue fell substantially.
  • European nations were starved of British colonial goods: coffee, sugar, tobacco, cocoa, and cotton textiles .
  • Apart from cotton, the imported goods were addictive luxuries. This led the people to wage resentment against the French.
  • Replacement items such as sugar beet and linen were not tolerated.

Aftermath

• TheBritish blockade of European ports and the scarcity of goods created a rise in European nationalism. The rise of nationalism in Europe gave Britain the opportunity to fight France on land. Sensing a potent danger,Napoleon slackened the restrictions. This immediately benefited Britain – so he again tightened up the regulations in 1811.
• This led both his allies and his vassal to revolt. After 1808, Spain rose up in rebellion against the French rule. Russia refused to implement the Continental System and this led directly to the Moscow Campaign of 1812. Consequently,Napoleon found himself faced with a war on two fronts.

Napoleonic Wars

• TheNapoleonic wars (1799-1815)were a continuation of the French Revolutionary wars. During the Napoleonic wars, France stood virtually alone against the rest of Europe. Along with the French Revolutionary wars, the Napoleonic wars comprise a 23-year long period of recurrent conflict that concluded only with theBattle of Waterloo and Napoleon’s second abdication on June 22, 1815.
• In 1803 Great Britain declared war against France, and in 1805 the Third coalition against France was formed by Britain, Russia, Austria, Sweden and finally Prussia.
• In 1805 Napoleon defeated the Austrian and Russian armies at Austerlitz, the Prussians at Jena and Auerstedt ( both in today’s Germany ) in 1806, and the Russians again in 1807 at Friedland. Napoleon signed the Peace treaty of Tilsit with the Russian Czar ( in 1807) forcing the defeated powers to join the continental System. Denmark, Norway, Sweden and Portugal were also forced to join the System.
• In 1807, Napoleon occupied Portugal and in 1808, Spain. This turned out to be a blatant error which led Spain raise against Napoleonic France.
• In 1809, Napoleon attempted a forced crossing of the Danube near Vienna, but the French and their allies were driven back by Austria. The Austrian army inflicted the first defeat on Napoleon in the Battle of Aspen-Essling, after which Napoleon again defeated the Austrians at Wagram forcing another peace treaty. The battle was the first time Napoleon had been personally defeated in over a decade .
• After a period of relative peace, Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812. This campaign proved to be a fatal error. After a glorious start and occupying Moscow, the forced withdrawal during the severe Russian winter totally annihilated the largest field army to date. The disaster resulted in Britain, Russia, Austria, Prussia and Sweden forming a new coalition against France.
• In 1813 during a campaign in lower Germany, Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of the Nations at Leipzig, which involved armies from almost all the European states. Forced to retreat on all fronts back into France, Napoleon was compelled to abdicate in 1814 after the occupation of Paris by the allies. Napoleon was exiled to Elba.
• In 1815, in a desperate attempt to regain power Napoleon escaped from Elba, returned to France and rebuild an army. He started a 100 days campaign in northern France and Belgium. This was concluded with his defeat at Waterloo and his exile under British supervision to St. Helen.

Napoleonic Era: A Critical Analysis

• Napoleon Bonaparte was considered by most to be the Savior of the French Revolution by ending it and putting in place a government that brought equality and stability to a torn country . Napoleon brought stability and direction to a country without a course. His unification of France left a profound impact not only on Europe, but the entire world.
• Napoleon was not liked by other European leaders because many of the changes he made, threatened their countries’ stability. His reforms made even the poor feel equal. The mainstays of the French Revolution that carried over into Napoleon’s changes in government were Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. This worried other leaders because it put the idea of equality in the minds of the poor in other countries.
• Despite his defeat (in the battle of Waterloo) and the end of his empire one cannot discount many great effects Napoleon had on the Atlantic World. His institution of Laws ensured freedom and equality that set a trend throughout the world. Many revolutions that occurred after the French revolutions modelled their constitutions and beliefs on those first set by Napoleon. Freedom of religion, equality, centralized government, and strong economies were the new goals for those who wanted new regimes.
• Napoleon gave not only the French, but all who fought for revolution a direction to follow. The systems he put in place ended the tumultuous years of the reign of terror and solidified equality for the poor in France. His military conquests are still studied today at the best military academies in the world. His contributions to the Atlantic World are just as numerous as they are important. Despite his fall at Waterloo, Napoleon’s legacy moved on and still impacts our world today.

Significance and Impact of the French Revolution

• The French revolution could be regarded as a starting point of modern history. The revolution cemented the fact that sovereignty comes from the people and not from above. It slashed off the ill effects of the society.
• It gave the people new concepts like Liberty, Equality, Fraternity and the feeling of brotherhood. Liberty ensured absence of arbitrary rule over the individual. Equality signified that all were equal before the law and social privileges in this respect stood abolished. Fraternity implied the brotherhood of humanity. The revolution thwarted the inequalities and social contradictions present in the then France.
• Further, significance and impact of the French Revolution could be elaborated into France on one hand, and Europe and the globe together, on the other.

Impact on France

• There is no doubt that the French Revolution had far reaching implication for the world. However, it had influenced France the most. The Revolution had left following social, economic and political effects on France.

Positive

• France – The Representative of Humanity:France became the representative of the humanity. It gave to the world of humanity three main important messages of Liberty, Fraternity, and Equality. Moreover, it led also to the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizens, which granted political liberty, like freedom of speech, press, association, worship and ownership of property.
• French Empire became Nation:The French nation was born because of the French Revolution. Since then, there was one France in place of different regions. The thirty million French subjects were granted equality of status as citizens of the nation and equality before law.
• End of Despotic Rule:Before the French Revolution, the Bourbon family ruled over France. The rulers of this dynasty believed in the theory of divine right of kingship and ruled as per their own wishes and whims. The French Revolution destroyed their very existence. It established a constitutional form of government and republic in France. They made the French people their own ruler.
• Rise of Political Parties:France became a multi-party state as a result of the 1789 French revolution. The freedom of association led to the rise of political clubs such as the Jacobins, cordeliers, Girondins that competed for power. These parties kept the government under check and in balance by criticizing bad policies.
• Napoleon Bonaparte:As France struggled under ineffective leadership that changed very little in the course of the daily lives of the common people, Napoleon was able to seize power with the help of military. Perhaps the most far-reaching consequence of this was the establishment of the Napoleonic Code or Code civil des Frangais. Essentially, the Code made the legal system fairer to all in France regardless of religion or wealth.
• Written Constitution:France got her first written constitution due to the French Revolution. It was also the first written constitution of the European continent . It gave the right of franchise to the citizen of France. There were some shortcomings in the constitution , but it had ushered in a new era in France.
• Abolition of Feudalism:The Feudal system ended due to the French Revolution. With the French Revolution, the difference between the privileged and non-privileged class ended. It was an end of the old despotic system.
• Decrease in Influence of Church:The influence of the high priests on the society of France ended. The priests took oath on the new constitution to maintain their loyalty to the French nation. The state became the owner of the wealth of the church. The priest started receiving salary from the state. On the other hand, the French people started adopting rational attitude in place of the blind faith based on religious affiliations.
• Administrative Changes:Numerous changes were made in the administrative structure of France due to the French Revolution. The whole of the country was divided into 83 departments for the administrative purpose. The principle of election was adopted at the places required in administration.
• National Guard:National Guard replaced the royal guard of the Bourbon monarchy. National Guard was formed to protect the achievements of the French revolution. By the end of 1793, there were about 700, 000 well trained and disciplined soldiers of the National Guard that protected people and their property.
• Re-Organization of the Judicial System:The National Convention introduced a common judicial system for whole of France. The judicial system was made independent of the executive and legislator. The ‘Jury System’ was introduced to try the criminal cases.
• Changes in the Conditions of Farmers:The feudal system ended, which liberated the farmers from the burden of unnecessary taxes. They did not have to pay the taxes to the landlords and tithes (the religious tax) to the church.
• Cultural Effects:France made numerous achievements in the field of art, science, and literature due to French Revolution. Numerous schools, colleges, universities, and academies were opened in the country. The special attention was paid to art, literature, science , mathematics, technology, and physical training in the field of education. However, the French Revolution also had some negative impacts on the nation, the repercussions of which were felt for long and wide.

Negative

• Led to Reign of Terror:The peaceful revolution that began on the 5th May 1789 changed into violence and causing reign of terror in France by 1792- 1794. During this period there was total breakdown of law and order, heavy massacres as people were competing to kill in order not to be killed especially by the leaders of political clubs.
• Economic Decline in France:The revolution led to the general decline in the level of economic activities. It hindered progress in agriculture, trade, industrial sector, transport and communication especially during the reign of terror. This led to unemployment, inflation, poverty, starvation and famine.
• The Church and the State:The revolution led to serous conflict between the Catholic Church and the state. Before the revolution, the Catholic Church and the state were inseparable. However, the declaration of the civil constitution the clergy, nationalization of the church property and removing privileges of the church led to poor relationship between the church and the state.
• Relationship with other States:The revolution led to poor relationship between France and other states. Revolutionary ideas of the French revolution were great threats to other powers and monarchs in Europe. That is why Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria and other countries allied against France in order to prevent the spread of revolutionary ideas to their countries.

Effect on Britain

• Effect on Reform Movements:Pit, the Younger, the Prime Minister of Britain in 1789, praised and welcomed the events of French Revolution, when it started in May 1789. When the Britishwatched the blood shed which followed the revolution, they turned against it. However, the main message of liberty, fraternity and equality arrested the attention of the British. They started various movements for social and political reforms.
• Economic Crises:It led to Financial crises in Britain. Britain started supporting the anti -revolution parties. It also extended them the monetary help. Britain also suffered due to the economic blockade launched by Napoleon. It increased her financial liabilities and her citizens were made to suffer the load of extra taxes .
• Influence on Ireland:The success of French Revolution encouraged the revolutionaries of Ireland. They increased their revolutionary activities. British government was forced to adopt oppressive measures in Ireland.

Effect on Europe

• Responses and Reactions:In Poland and Ireland, the French Revolution encouraged revolutionary activities. The Revolution also influenced middle class of Germany and Italy.
• A phase of new Wars:The rising tide of revolution in different countries became the cause of fear among the autocratic rulers. They joined to check the spread of the revolution. It pushed Europe in a spate of anti-revolutionary wars.
• Rise of Concert of Europe:After defeating Napoleon, the European nations organised the Concert of Europe in 1815. It aimed at maintaining the status quo and reinstatement of European royal families. It was also accompanied by the reactionary policies against the revolutionary movements in European countries.

Permanent Effects

• Spirit of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity:The main gift of French Revolution was the ideas of Equality, Fraternity and Equality. It ended the dominance of the theory of divine right of kingship. It gave a deathblow to social status by birth. It became the cause of the rise of nationalism.
• Rise of Nationalism:The French Revolution infused the sense of nationalism among the people of France. The people of France faced the attack of foreign power as one nation and inculcated the feeling of nationalism among them. It was soon followed by similar rise of feelings of nationalism in other countries .
• Anti-colonial Wave:It inspired anti-colonial movements and weakened the European colonial powers like Spain and Portugal. People in Belgium and the Balkan states succeeded in gaining independence.
  • In Haiti, which at the time of the French Revolution was a French colony called Saint Domingue, independence movements broke out when the National Assembly passed he Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.
• In Asia and Africathere were struggles for Independence inspired by the ideals of the French Revolution. In India, Tipu Sultan and Raja Rammohan Roy were inspired by the ideals of the French Revolution.
• Growth of Democratic Ideas:The French Revolution encouraged the rule of law, the politics of census and democratic rule.
• Rise of Internationalism:The French Revolution gave rise to the need of coming together at international level to face the common danger. It emerged in form of Concert of Europe. It started an era of international bodies. The origin of UN ( UNO) is also traced to Concert of Europe.
  • So, in a nutshell, the French Revolution could be regarded as a turning point in the panorama of the world history which not only engendered new concepts but also encouraged the existing rational ones .

Comparison of the American and French Revolution

Similarity b/w American and French Revolution

Ideals

• Both the American Revolution and French Revolution were theproducts of Enlightenment idealsthat emphasized the idea of natural rights and equality.

Revolution by Commons

• Both weredriven by thecommon masseswho felt the need to be free from oppressive or tyrannical rule of absolute monarchs and believed in their ability to live independent from such forces .
• Just as in America, it was themiddle and lower classesinvolved in the revolution in France too and although the loyalists in America had a sound following, the demographics of the revolution were essentially the same.

Repressive Leadership

• The leadership in both countries at the time of their revolutions wascertainly repressive, especially in terms of taxation.
• Both areassuffered social and economic hardshipsthat led to the realization that something must be done to topple the hierarchy and put power back into the hands of the people.

Aims and Final Outcome

• While there were different circumstances that effected the governments being rebelled against, these revolutions had similar aims and achieved the similar result of anew republic and constitution as the final outcome.

Declarations and Constitutions

• Both revolutions produced similar and seminal political documents and their respectivewritten constitutions.
• TheDeclaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was adopted in France in August 1789by the National Constituent Assembly whereasUnited States had Bill of Rights (1789)as significant documents which gave practical shape to ideals of Enlightenment .
  • The Declaration of the Rights of Man also showed similarities to the United States Constitution (1787) and the United States Bill of Rights.
  • Like the U. S. Constitution, The French Declaration provided for a national defense, and emphasized equality before taxation ( which was distinctly different from traditional France, in which the Catholic Church and the nobility were exempt from most taxes) .
  • Finally, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen provides for freedom of speech and of the press, and addresses freedom of religion.
  • Like these American documents , France ’s Declaration prohibits ex post facto application of criminal law and proclaims the presumption of innocence to a crime suspect .

Differences b/w American and French Revolution

Industrial Revolution

• Industrial Revolution, in modern history, is theprocess of change from an agrarian and handicraft economy to one dominated by industry and machine manufacturing. This processbegan in Britainin the18th centuryand from there spread to other parts of the world. Although used earlier by French writers, the term Industrial Revolution was first popularized by the English economic historianArnold Toynbee (1852-83)to describe Britain’s economic development from 1760 to 1840.
• It was a period during which predominantlyagrarian, rural societiesin Europe and America became industrial and urban. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, manufacturing was often done inpeople’s homes, using hand tools or basic machines. Industrialization marked ashift to powered, special-purpose machinery, factories and mass production.
• Theiron and textile industries, along with the development of the steam engine, played central roles in the Industrial Revolution, which also saw improved systems of transportation, communication and banking. While industrialization brought about an increased volume and variety of manufactured goods and an improved standard of living for some, it also resulted in often grim employment and living conditions for the poor and working classes.

Changes that Led to Industrial Revolution

• The main features involved in the Industrial Revolution weretechnological, socioeconomic, and cultural.The technological changes included the following:
  • Theuse of new basic materials, chiefly iron and steel,
  • Theuse of new energy sources, including both fuels and motive power, such as coal, the steam engine, electricity, petroleum, and the internal-combustion engine,
  • Theinvention of new machines,such as the spinning jenny and the power loom that permitted increased production with a smaller expenditure of human energy,
  • Anew organization of work known as the factory system,which entailed increased division of labour and specialization of function,
  • Importantdevelopments in transportation and communication,including the steam locomotive, steamship, automobile, airplane, telegraph, and radio, and
  • The increasing application of science to industry. These technological changes made possible a tremendously increased use of natural resources and the mass production of manufactured goods
• There were also many new developments innon-industrial spheres, including the following:
  • Agricultural improvementsthat made possible the provision of food for a larger non-agricultural population,
  • Economic changesthat resulted in a wider distribution of wealth, the decline of land as a source of wealth in the face of rising industrial production, and increased international trade,
  • Political changesreflecting the shift in economic power, as well as new state policies corresponding to the needs of an industrialized society,
  • Sweeping social changes, including the growth of cities, the development of working-class movements, and the emergence of new patterns of authority, and
  • Cultural transformations of a broad order. Workers acquired new and distinctive skills, and their relation to their tasks shifted ; instead of being craftsmen working with hand tools, they became machine operators, subject to factory discipline.
• Finally, there was apsychological change: confidence in the ability to use resources and to master nature was heightened.

Associated Revolutions

Agriculture Revolutions

• The term agricultural revolution refers to theradical changes in the method of agriculture in England in the 17th and 18th centuries.There was a massive increase in agricultural productivity, which supported the growing population. TheAgricultural Revolution preceded the Industrial Revolutionin England.
• During the Agricultural Revolution,four key changestook place in agricultural practices. They were
  • enclosure of lands,
  • mechanization of farming,
  • four-field crop rotation, and
  • selective breeding of domestic animals.
• Prior to the agricultural revolution, the practice of agriculture had been much the same across Europe since the Middle Ages. The open field system was essentially feudal. Each farmer engaged in cultivation in common land and dividing the produce.
• From the beginning of 12th century, some of the common fields in Britain were enclosed intoindividually owned fields. This process rapidly accelerated in the 15th and 16th centuries as sheep farming grew more profitable. This led to farmers losing their land and their grazing rights.Many farmers became unemployed.
• In the 16th and 17th centuries, the practice of enclosure wasdenounced by the Church, and legislation was drawn up against it. However, the mechanization of agriculture during the 18th century required large, enclosed fields. This led to a series of government acts, culminating finally in theGeneral Enclosure Act of 1801. By the end of the 19th century the process of enclosure was largely complete.
• Great experiments were conducted in farming during this period. Machines were introduced for seeding and harvesting. Rotation of crops was introduced byCharles Townshend. The lands became fertile by this method.
• Bakewell introduced scientific breeding of farm animals. The horse-drawn ploughs, rake, portable threshers, manure spreaders, multiple ploughs and dairy appliances had revolutionized farming. These changes in agriculture increased food production as well as other farm outputs.

Demographic Revolution

• In 1740s, England witnessed a remarkablegrowth in her population. This was called as Demographic Revolution (DR).
• So thedemand for the commodities increased, this motivated British manufacturers to increase production.

Innovation and Industrialization

• The textile industry, in particular, was transformed by industrialization. Before mechanization and factories, textiles were made mainly in people’s homes (giving rise to the term cottage industry), with merchants often providing the raw materials and basic equipment, and then picking up the finished product. Workers set their own schedules under this system, which proved difficult for merchants to regulate and resulted in numerous inefficiencies.
• In the 1700s , a series of innovations led to ever-increasing productivity, while requiring less human energy. For example,around 1764, Englishman James Hargreaves ( 1722-1778 ) invented the spinning jenny(‘jenny’ was an early abbreviation of the word ‘engine’), a machine that enabled an individual to produce multiple spools of threads simultaneously.
• Another key innovation in textiles ,the power loom, which mechanized the process of weaving cloth, was developed in the 1780s by English inventorEdmund Cartwright( 1743- 1823).
• Developments in the iron industryalso played a central role in the Industrial Revolution. Both iron and steel became essential materials, used to make everything from appliances, tools and machines, to ships, buildings and infrastructure.
• Thesteam engine was also integral to industrialization. By the 1770s, the steam engine went on to power machinery, locomotives and ships during the Industrial Revolution.

Transportation and Industrial Revolution

• The transportation industry also underwent significant transformation during the Industrial Revolution. Before the advent of thesteam engine, raw materials and finished goodswere hauled and distributed viahorse-drawn wagons, and by boats along canals and rivers.
• In the early 1800s, American Robert Fulton built the first commercially successfulsteamboat,and by the mid- 19th century, steamships were carrying freight across the Atlantic. In the early 1800s, British engineer Richard Trevithick constructed the firstrailway steam locomotive. In 1830, England’s Liverpool and Manchester Railway became the first to offer regular,time-tabled passenger services.
• By 1850, Britain had more than 6,000 miles of railroad track. Additionally, around 1820, Scottish engineer John McAdam (1756-1836) developed a new process for road construction which made roads smoother, more durable and less muddy.

Communication and Banking

• Communication became easier during the Industrial Revolution with such inventions as thetelegraph.A blind English man Rolland Hill (1795-1879) started a system in 1840, through which anybody could send a letter to any place in Great Britain by affixing a one-pence stamp on the letter.In 1844, Samuel Morse invented telegraph machine. In 1876,under water telegraphywas introduced for connectivity between two continents. Underwater cable was laid between North America and Europe and was called‘Atlantic Cable’.In 1876, Graham Bell invented telephone which revolutionized communication.
• The Industrial Revolution also saw the rise of banks and industrial financiers, as well as a factory system dependent on owners and managers. Astock exchange was established in London in the 1770s; theNew York Stock Exchangewas founded in the early 1790s.
• In 1776, Scottish social philosopherAdam Smith,who is regarded as the founder of modern economics, publishedThe Wealth of Nations’, which promoted aneconomic system based on free enterprise, theprivate ownership of means of production, and lack of government interference.

Quality of Life during Industrialization

• The Industrial Revolution brought about agreater volume and variety of factory-produced goods and raised the standard of living for many people, particularly for the middle and upper classes. However, life for thepoor and working classes continued to be filled with challenges.
• Wages for those who labored in factories were low and working conditions could be dangerous and monotonous. Unskilled workers had little job security and were easily replaceable. Children were part of the labor force and often worked long hours and were used for such highly hazardous tasks as cleaning the machinery.
• Industrialization also meant thatsome craftsman were replaced by machines. Additionally, urban, industrialized areas were unable to keep pace with the flow of arriving workers from the countryside, resulting in inadequate, overcrowded housing and polluted, unsanitary living conditions in which disease was rampant. Conditions for Britain’s working-class began to gradually improve by the later part of the 19th century, as the government instituted various labor reforms and workers gained the right to form trade unions.

Industrial Revolution in England

Reasons for Industrial Revolution in England

• Availability of Capital:The vast amount of capital which England had accumulated out of profits of her growing trade enabled her to make large outlays on machinery and buildings, which in turn contributed to new technological developments. In addition England also possessed a large amount of loanable capital obtained by the bank of England from the rich trade of other countries. Another source of capital for England was her huge colonial possessions.
• Innovation and Scientific Inventions:The Industrial Revolution was stimulated by a number of inventions and developments by British scientists. These inventions were encouraged by freedom of thought. Britain was receptive to intellectual developments from Europe. British thought was secular, rational and focused on science and development. This freedom of thought allowed British scientists to develop new technologies.
• Large Colonial Territories:England had established her extensive colonial empire. In the race for colonisation , France and other states lagged behind. Colonies provided raw materials and new markets to England. England enjoyed monopoly over sea trading. It had the best ports situated on key commercial routes.
• Available Market for Consumption:Towards the middle of the century, a population boom combined with a demand abroad for the products led to the demand needed for a revolution to happen.
• Available Labor Force:Towards the end of 18th century, an epidemic ‘Black death’ broke out in England and lakhs of people died. England became short of farmers and labourers. Thousands of farmers left their villages and came to cities to seek jobs. Due to technological advancements in agriculture also, during early 17th century, many farmers were displaced who started looking for jobs. It increased the number of workers in cities. And they started opening their independent industries.
• Social and Political Stability:
  • Britain boasted a remarkably stable government, especially when compared to that of other European nations, who were only beginning to arise from the turmoil created due to over a century of warfare. Other European nations, such as France, Russia and Germany lacked governmental stability due to wars and were more focused on reestablishing their states than industrializing.
  • The social stability prevailing in England encouraged the people to invest in sectors where they could hope to receive high dividend in future. This led to the adoption of new techniques and promotion of new industries.
• Availability of Coal and Iron:Britain had huge deposits of both iron and coal, both of which were instrumental to industrialization in general. Iron was used in essentially every tool and machine while coal was utilized to fuel furnaces and factories. With the introduction of the steam engine, coal became even more significant in the industrial process because it fueled locomotives and steamships, both of which were important assets in efficiently transporting goods.
• Protectionist Policy of British Government:Various local taxes and octroi were levied in other European countries but England did not put such barriers. Because of policy of protectionism adopted by British government, trade and industries flourished there.
• Presence of Enterprising People:
  • The technological changes in England were made possible because of the presence of a sizable section of people who possessed enterprising spirit and requisite technical qualities.
  • Further this class of people were accustomed to handling large enterprises and labour force; were willing to invest money for the discovery of new techniques and give a fair trial to these techniques.
• Risk Taking Private Sector:The presence of the sizable private sector in a country with great capacity of individual businessmen to take risk also greatly contributed to Industrial revolution. These businessmen were willing to take chances on new things. In this they were also supported by the government.
• Better Means of Transport:England possessed a far better means of transportation than any other country in Europe which greatly helped the Industrial revolution. In this task the government played an important role which spent considerable amount on the improvement of roads and construction of canals.
• Geographical Location:
  • Being cut off from the mainland of Europe, England remained immune from the wars and upheavals of Napoleonic conflicts and conditions remained quite stable in the country. These stable conditions enabled England to develop its industrial capacity without fear of battle, damage or loss of life.
  • Britain’s climate and geography also benefitted their sheep industry and agricultural industry which increased food productions and allowed people to work in the industry.
• Some Other Factors:Unlike France and other countries, serfdom and class system had already been abolished in England. It had an atmosphere useful for the promotion of trade and commerce.

Spread of Industrial Revolution

• In the periodbetween 1760 and 1830, the Industrial Revolution waslargely confined to Britain. Aware of their head start, the British forbade the export of machinery, skilled workers, and manufacturing techniques.
• The British monopoly could not last forever, especially since some Britons saw profitable industrial opportunities abroad, while continental European businessmen sought to lure British know-how to their countries .
• Two Englishmen,William and John Cockerill, brought the Industrial Revolution to Belgium by developing machine shops at Liege(c . 1807), and Belgium became the first country in continental Europe to be transformed economically. Like its British progenitor, the Belgian Industrial Revolution centred in iron, coal, and textiles.
• France was more slowly and less thoroughly industrialized than either Britain or Belgium. While Britain was establishing its industrial leadership, France was immersed in its Revolution, and the uncertain political situation discouraged large investments in industrial innovations. By 1848 France had become an industrial power, but, despite great growth under the Second Empire, it remained behind Britain.
• Other European countries lagged far behind. Their bourgeoisie lacked the wealth, power, and opportunities of their British, French, and Belgian counterparts.Political conditions in the other nations also hindered industrial expansion. Germany, for example, despite vast resources of coal and iron, did not begin its industrial expansion until after national unity was achieved in 1870. Once begun, Germany’s industrial production grew so rapidly that by the turn of the century that nation was out producing Britain in steel and had become the world leader in the chemical industries.
• The rise of U.S. industrial power in the 19th and 20th centuries also far outstripped European efforts. And Japan too joined the Industrial Revolution with striking success .

Industrialization in Other Countries

United States of America

• After independence, the USA moved towards industrialization in a phased manner.By the civil war (1861- 65), the USA had become an industrialised nation with the highest Gross National Product (GNP) in the world.
• In the beginning it had to face the following main difficulties in the way of industrialization: lack of capital, shortage of skilled labour, underdeveloped means of transport and ignorance about machines. But because of abundance of natural resources, political stability, government protection and the effort of adventurous entrepreneurs, it soon overcame these difficulties and made rapid progress.
• The main areas were:

Agriculture

• Progress in agriculture provided a strong base to American industrialisation.
• There was a growing demand for the American cotton in the industrial market.
• Harvester and Thresher were invented.
• Rotation of crops was introduced.
• Animal husbandry progressed. Automatic machines were used for cutting and packing meat. Thus, processed food industry considerably grew.
• All these made US a top agricultural country.

Transportation and Communication

• Expansion of transportation and communication played an important role in the economic progress of USA .
• Rapid change was seen in the period between 1789 and 1862.
• Several roads were converted into highways before the end of 18th C. AD.
• In 1825, the longest canal Eirie was built. It connected Albany with Buffalo.

Textile Industry

• Samuel Slater was the founder oftextile industry in America who was called from Britain to set up a spinning jenny and a water frame.
• South New England became the centre of textile industry because the merchants here readily invested their capital in factories and farmers and their families were willing to work in them.
• The factors responsible for this progress were expanding population, custom protection and change in people ’s taste.

Iron and Steel

• Iron and steel is the basis of industrialization.
• In Pennsylvania, the industry developed rapidly as both iron ore and coal were available in plenty.
• Several factories for manufacturing guns and weapons were set up.
• USA adopted the new techniques developed in Britain of iron and steel production.
• Iron and steel were also used for manufacturing Franklin stoves, water pipes and electric poles etc.

Germany

• Industrial revolution in Germany beganin 1845 and Berlin, Hamburg, Prague , Vienna were connected by railway lines.
• By 1870 production of iron and steel reached a high point. Several textile mills were set up between 1850 and 1880.
• Transport system was improved.
• Mechanization of industries continued and by 1900 Germany was ready for the takeoff and soon Prussia attained economic leadership.
• Capital investment increased rapidly after 1870 and the population of Germany reached 6.5 million by 1910.
• Before World War I, Germany became an industrial rival of Britain. It left all countries behind in the use of chemicals in agriculture and of science in steel industry.
• In the production of iron and steel, it ranked 2nd after America. Electric goods industry also made rapid progress and enjoyed 50% share in international market.
• The causes of this amazing industrial progress were availability of social capital and its use for building roads, ports, canals and railway lines; expansion of technical education, intelligent use of inventions made in other countries, network of banks and emergence of cartels which maintained the growth rate of the capital and kept the rate of profit high and finally the excellent condition of agriculture.

Russia

• Although it had rich deposits of iron and coal but industrial revolution reached Russia very latebecause it did not have a good currency system, lacked adequate capital and serfdom still continued there.
• Serfs were freed in 1861 and government invited foreign capitalists to invest in industries.
• The industrial output of Russia rapidly increased between 1860 and 1910.
• During this period, production of iron ore increased tremendously but the engineering industry remained stagnant.
• By 1917, Railways was given more importance and rail network increased to 81000 km.
• More progress was made by Moscow, St. Petersburg and Ukraine.
• Reforms benefitted only a small segment of population. So Russia had all ingredients of becoming an economic power but this was checked by clash of class interests and discontent among the people.
• Lenin’s new economic policyprepared the ground for future development. This policy was continued for 1928 and with the help of five-year plans efforts were made to accelerate economic development.
• The1st five year plan 1928-1932laid emphasis on collective farming. The government advanced loans to farmers, supplied them machines and chemical fertilizers on favourable terms and allowed them rebate in taxes.
• The soviet state bought food grains from collective farms at cheaper rates and sold them at higher prices. The difference was utilised for expanding industrialisation.
• One of the drawbacks of economic development during this period was that to meet the targets, the quality of products was compromised. Emphasis on heavy industries created shortage of consumer goods and people had to face rationing and other problems.

Japan

• TheMeiji Era (1868 -1912)may be regarded as epoch making in the history of Japan. It was during this period that modernisation of the country took place.
• Japan progressed rapidly after signing of treaty of Kanagawa. In July 1853, the US representative, Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry , signed the Treaty of Kanagawa with the Japanese government, opening the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to American trade and permitting the establishment of a U.S. consulate in Japan making the United States the first Western nation to establish relations with Japan since it was declared closed to foreigners in 1683.
• The monetary system was organised and nationalised.
• In 1887 , Yokohama Gold and Silver Banks were established to procure capital for foreign trade.
• Development of Banking system and foreign trade transformed the economy of Japan.
• The government subsidised and encouraged indigenous shipbuilding industry.
• As a result, by the beginning of 10th century, Japan secured foremost position in shipbuilding in the world.
• In 1869, first telegraph line was laid between Tokyo and Yokohama by Mr. Brunton. In 1871, New postal system was introduced in Japan.
• Agricultural reforms were introduced after the reinstallation of Meiji which were: peasants were made owners of land they had been tilling for years; agriculture colleges were opened etc. This further helped Japan in advancing its economy and making Japan the first Asian country to develop.

China

• Civil war broke out in China by the end of World War II and it became a communist country after the revolution of 1949.
  • The ownership of the land was given to the farmers and that is how the communist won the popularity among masses.
  • China took the help of USSR to modernize its economy and developed shipbuilding industry, organized its air force and rejuvenated its mining activity. Old industries were renovated, means of transport developed and inflation controlled.
  • The People’s Bank of China was established to deal with loans and money matters.
  • Land was redistributed among the poor and farmers were liberated from exploitation. Land was pooled to make large farms.
  • Commune system was introduced which aimed to bring China closer to communism.
  • Chinese economy had been socialised to a large extent. Important industries such as petroleum, transport, steel, and communication were nationalised.
  • For industrial development, 1st five year plan was initiated. The industrial output recorded an increase of 141% , capital 320% and consumer goods 86% and Chinese goods captured a large market in East Asia.

Effects of Industrial Revolution

• The Industrial revolution in the words of Ramsay Muir was ‘mighty and silent upheaval’ which brought themost momentous change in the condition of human life. Though essentially an economic revolution, it brought significant changes in thesocial, political and other spheres.
• Thetrend of economy moved from village to city, from agriculture to industry, from inaction to progress, from small scale to large scale and from national frontiers to international frontiers. In fact no other event in human history of mankind so profoundly affected the human life as the Industrial revolution.

Economic Effects

• It produced far reaching consequences in the economic sphere. In the first place it greatly contributed to theprocess of humanity through increased production of goods.New factories and workshopcame into existence, and produced goods in large quantities with the help of machines.
  • These factories operated on the principle of division of labour with each labourer concentrating on some stage of production rather than whole process of production. This not only reduced the cost of goods but also improved their quality.
  • Thus industrial revolution madesupply of quality goods at cheap rates possible.
• It led to therise of industrial capitalism and finance capitalism. Before industrial revolution goods were produced at home with the help of simple and cheap tools which did not need much capital. But with the installation of big machines huge capital were needed and a class of capitalist made its appearance .
• Thus,the independent worker became a wage earner, selling his labour to another, and forced to sell it , if he would avoid starvation. Under the factory systemwomen and children became competitors of the men, as they could tend the machines in most industries as well as the men, and would accept lower wages. Thisdislocation of family from the home to the factorybrought with it many evils and abuses, as did also the long hours of labour, the frequent lack of employment, owing to causes which the worker could not control, such as bad management of the business.
• Economic crisis was the inevitable effect of capitalistic economy thus leading to theeconomic depressions of 1825, 1837 ,1847, 1857, 1866 , 1873, 1888 , 1890, 1900 , 1907 , 1930.
• The industrial revolution provided aboost to trade and commerce. Due to introduction of machines and division of labour, the production of goods increased so much that they could not be consumed by the home market or even by the neighbouring countries. Therefore industrial nations began to look for world markets where their goods could be sold. This resulted in enhancement of trade and commerce, which encouraged Colonisation .
• By bringing the workers together it inevitably led them to organise into unions for the protection and improvement of their individual and collective interests.

Social Effects

• In the social sphere also the Industrial revolution produced far reaching consequences. In the first place, thegrowth of factory system resulted in the growth of new cities.Workers shifted to places near the factories where they were employed. This resulted in the growth of a number of new cities like Leeds, Manchester, Birmingham etc in Britain, which soon became the centre for industry, trade and commerce.
• Therise of cities was accompanied by growth of slums. Before the advent of industrial revolution, the industries were scattered throughout the country .
• Artisans generally worked in their cottages or shops and were not entirely dependent on trade for their livelihood. They often combined manufacturing and agriculture. This was not possible after the growth of factories as workers had to live at places near to factory. This lead tomigration on a large scale from villages to citiesandit was a threat to joint family system.
• As a large number of workers had to be provided accommodation, long rows of small one room houses without garden or other facilities were built. With the emergence of new factories and growth in population the problem assumed more serious dimension. In thedark, dingy and dirty housesthe workers fell easy prey tovarious types of diseases and often died premature death.
• Theextremely low wagespaid by the factory owners made it difficult for them to make both ends meet. As a consequence they were often obliged to send their women and children to factories, where they were work on extremely low wages. The industrialists preferred women and children because they were easy to manage.
• Exploitation of workers especially of women and children resulted instunted bodies, deformed backs, horribly twisted legs etc.They had to work for 14 to 16 hours. This led to therise of trade unions.Power of middle class unfolded, power of workers grew. They began to demand respect and fundamental rights. Women also raised demand.
• Theconditions of factory life were not conducive to healthy family life. Women were required to work for long hours and they were hardly left with any time or energy to look after their household or children. Further, as they lived in extremely congested quarters they also lost their qualities of modesty and virtue. Oftenwomen and children got addicted to alcohol and made their life a miserable one.
• Industrial revolution led tosharp divisions in society. The society got divided into classes – thebourgeoisie and the proletariat. The former consisted offactory owners, great bankers, small industrialists, merchants and professional men. They gathered great wealth and paid very low wages to workers. Theother class consisted of labourers who merely worked as tools in the factories.
• With the passage of time the lot of the capitalist classes went on improving and that of the working classes went on deteriorating. This caused great social disharmony, and gave rise to the conflict between the capitalists and workers.

Political Effects

• In the political sphere also, industrial revolution had manifold impact. In the first place it led to thecolonisation of Asia and Africa.Great Britain and other industrial countries of Europe began to look fornew colonieswhich could supply them necessaryraw materials for feeding their industriesand also serve as ready market for their finished industrial products .
• Therefore, the industrial countries carved out extensivecolonial empires in the 19th century. These countries added so much of the territories to their empire that one historian has described it as “the greatest land grab movement in the history of the world.” It is well known that the colonialism produced adverse effects on the locals and resulted in their exploitation.
  • However, it cannot be denied that it also paved the way for the modernisation of these territories because the Europeans set up certain industrial units in these areas.
• Industrial revolution sharply divided the countries. Theindustrially advanced countries which possessed necessary finances and skill, invested their surplus capital in backward countries and fully exploited their resources and crippled their industries. Thus the world came to be divided into two groups- thedeveloped and the underdeveloped world, which is a cause of great tension even at present.
• As a result of Industrial Revolution, alarge number of Europeans went across the oceans and settled down in America and Australia and contributed to the Europeanisation of these countries. It has been estimated that as against 145,000 people which left Europe in 1820s, over 9 million people left Europe between 1900 and 1910.
• It also provided theboost to the reform movements in England. Many factory laws were enacted to improve the lot of the workers between 1833-45 which tried tolimit the working hours for children under eleven years of ageto nine hours a day and that of women to 12 hours a day. These Acts also prohibited employment of children in mines and laid down general rules for the health and safety of workers.
• With the setting up of factories in northern part of England larger number of people shifted from south and their population greatly declined. However, these populated cities continued to send same number of representatives to the parliament whereas the new industrial towns were not represented in the parliament. This led to the demand ofredistribution of seats. A movement known asChartist movementbegan to demand reforms for improving the lot of workers and for introduction of universal suffrage, secret voting, equal electoral districts, no property qualifications for membership, payment of members, and annual elections. In this way we can say that the industrial revolutionstrengthened forces of democracy in England.

Ideological Effects

• Industrial revolution left a remarkable effect on economic ideology also. In the 18th century,liberalism which was based on the principle of individual liberty prevailed in Europe.
• Liberalism was a political concept and involved constitutionalism, supremacy of the public, equality of all before law, religious tolerance and understanding of nationalism. Industrial revolution in England added theprinciple of non-interference by the state in economic affairs.
  • Adam Smith subscribed to thepolicy of laissez-faireand pointed out the useless role of state’s control over trade and commerce.
  • David Ricardo maintained thatevery national economy is based on certain eternal laws and the ‘Iron law of Wages’ is one of them. According to this law, it is not possible for a worker to earn more than his livelihood.
• The British government formulated itseconomic policies on the basis of laissez-faire. British Industrialists also welcomed those policies because the system of capitalism based on free competition enjoyed their support.
• Thespirit of public welfares and efforts for improving the condition of workers gave birth to socialism. Socialism aimed at establishing equality in society.
  • The ultimate goal of socialism was toeliminate class struggle and form a classless society. In order to achieve these objectives, government’s control over production and distribution of important things was considered necessary.
  • Socialism has Three Pillars
    • It criticizes modern industrial civilization-private capitalism.
    • It is the voice of all workers and working class.
    • Demands a just distribution of wealth.

Industrial Revolution: A Critical Analysis

Merits

• Urbanisation:The factory system introduced by the Industrial Revolution created cities and urban centres. In England , cities like Manchester, Birmingham , Leeds, and Sheffield arose . People left their rural homes and gathered around these cities by the hundreds and thousands in quest of work and wages. The population of Manchester increased six fold within a half century.
• Machinery:The introduction of power machinery rapidly increased production of goods.
• Intellectual Movement:The intellectual encouragement had also been great . Schools, colleges , newspapers , libraries, and the radio had been dependent on the capitalistic system for their rapid development. Many intellectuals like Marx , St. Simon emerged as a result of the Industrial Revolution.
• Large Employment:The starting of new industries provided employment to many men and women.

Demerits

• New Social Problems:The rapid growth of industrial cities created problems that were difficult to solve . Accommodation, sanitation, and health were not provided adequately. Sickness and crime prevailed. Women and children were employed for cheap labour. They worked for 12 to 14 hours per day.
• Capitalism:The establishment of the factory system increased the amount of money in circulation. However , money concentrated in the hands of a few people.
• Class Division:The Industrial Revolution divided society into two distinct groups: the rich middle class ( bourgeoisie), composed of manufacturers, merchants , mine owners, bankers, and professional men, on the one hand, and the wage-earning class (proletariat) , composed of mill workers and factory workers, on the other . This gap between employer and employee gave rise to many economic and social problems .
• Growth of Colonialism and Imperialism:The Industrial Revolution had strengthened colonialism because the colonies were useful to obtain raw materials and sell the finished products. So, larger territories were captured thus paving way for imperialism.

Conclusion

• The Industrial Revolution of the mid of 18th century while transforming the textile production through the series of innovations and with its concomitant socio-political and global effects paved the path for another phase of Industrial revolution (also known as Second Industrial Revolution) in the mid of 19th century .

Congress of Vienna

Congress of Vienna

• TheCongress of Vienna was the assembly of Victors who defeated Napoleon first in the battle of Leipzig in 1813and then in the battle of Waterloo in 1815.As the name suggests it was organized in Austrian capital city of Vienna, under the chairmanship of Austrian ChancellorMetternich. The main objective of the Congress was torestore the map of the Europe disturbed by the forces of revolution and Napoleonic wars.
• Napoleon had changed the political map of Europe within a short period. He hadtaken away territories from many states to add them to some states and to create some new states. After his overthrow, it was decided by the victor powers to restore the political map of Europe in such a way that peace can be ensured in entire Europe. The work of Congress started when Napoleon was exiled after his defeat in battle of Leipzig andfinally completed in 1815 after the defeat of Napoleon in battle of Waterloo.
• There were serious differences among the victors regarding thefate of Poland and Saxony. Prussia wanted to annex whole of Saxony in exchange for the Polish territories she was surrendering to Russia.Russia was also supporting Prussiasince she will be benefitted by getting large portions of Poland. But Metternich was opposed to this idea since he was averse to allow Prussia so large an extension near Austrian borders.Britain and France supported Metternichin his stand on the issue. This issue lingered on and in early 1815 Austria, Britain and France formed a defensive alliance to counter the claims of Prussia and Russia. This step resulted in Russia and Prussia backing away from their demands and in the end Prussia secured only two-fifths of the Saxony.
• The Vienna Settlement was based on the three principles, viz.,balance of powers, restoration of legitimate rule and compensation to the victors.

Principle of Balance of Powers

• The principle of balance of power was used by Congress of Viennato ensure that in future no single nation would be too powerful to disturb the peace of Europe at will.
• In accordance with this principle,the French borders were put to 1791 position and France was surrounded by a ring of powerful states to check French aggression from all the directions.
  • Prussia was strengthened by giving territories on river Rhine.
  • To enlarge and strengthen the kingdom of Sardinia, Savoy and Piedmont were restored and Genoa and Nice were added.
  • Austrian Netherland, was joined with Holland to create another powerful entity.

Principle of Restoration

• The principle of restoration of legitimate rule was adoptedto restore the dynasties displaced by forces of revolution and by Napoleonic wars. It was also decidedto restore boundaries of several states, as far as possible, as they were before the advent of the French Revolution.
  • Therule of Bourbon dynasty was re-establishedin France, Spain, and Naples-Sicily.
  • House of Orangewas restored in Holland.
  • House of Savoy(King of Sardinia) was restored in Piedmont and Sardinia.
  • Pope was restoredin Papal States in Central Italy.
  • The various German princes whose territories had been included by Napoleon in the Confederation of the Rhine were also restored to their territories.
  • TheSwiss Confederationwas also restored.
  • Tyrol was restored to Austria. The right of Austria to the Austrian Netherlands was recognised. However, to create a stronger state on the northern frontier of France, the Austrian Netherland was given to Holland.
  • Members of the Hapsburg family were restoredin the Italian states of Parma, Modena and Tuscany.

Principle of Compensation

• Principle of compensation to the victors was adoptedto redistribute the territory of Europe among victors. So, in addition to territorial provisions made under‘balance of powers’ after applying compensation principles the final territorial gains of nations were:
  • Prussia was given all the German territorieswhich had been taken away from her by Napoleon. Prussia was also given Swedish Pomerania, two-fifths of Saxony, most of Rhineland and whole of Westphalia (Prussia was given these territories to act as bulwark against any future French aggression).
  • Most of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, Finland (taken away from Sweden) and Bessarabia (taken away from Ottoman Empire) were given to Russia.
  • Norway was taken from Denmark and given to Swedento compensate her loss of Finland and Swedish Pomerania (Denmark was punished on account of her alliance with Napoleon for a long time).
  • Ascompensation for Austrian Netherlands which was given to Holland, Lombardy and Venetia were given to Austria. Austria also got the Illyrian provinces along with eastern coast of the Adriatic. Austrian control over the German states was re-established by creating Confederation of German States. Austria also recovered her Polish possessions.
  • Great Britain was compensated with Malta, Ceylon, the Cape of Good Hope colony, and Dutch Guiana taken away from Holland. That is why Holland was given Austrian Netherlands.

Congress of Vienna: A Critical Analysis

• In the name of legitimacyFrance was restored but she was hemmed in by the Netherlands, Prussia and Piedmont- Sardinia.Austria replaced Franceand emerged as the new leader of Continental Europe.
• The main objective of the participants wasto restore peace in Europeand to put an end to the age of warfare. The principle of compromise was applied wherever possible and that is why not a very harsh treaty was imposed on France. In comparison,France was not held responsible for the actions of Napoleon. French frontiers were not changed drastically and in fact they were only restricted to as they were in 1790.
• In the first treaty neitherwar indemnitywas asked from France nor was she asked to return art works stolen from other areas by Napoleon. Even when Napoleon was defeated second time in 1815, very mild treaty was imposed. The signing of the treaty took place on November 20, 1815. In this second treaty, an indemnity of seven hundred million francs was awarded to the Allies and 240 million francs were awarded to private creditors.
• France also had to pay for the upkeep for the Allied Army of Occupation in Northern France. The period of Allied occupation was cut short in 1818 when France paid off war indemnity. France was also asked to return arts which Napoleon had plundered from other countries , although it was not imposed strictly and only some art treasures taken by Napoleon were returned to their original owners.
• It is true that Second Peace of Paris was harsher than the first treaty but it was still a generous peace. Neither indemnity nor occupation payments were as heavy as they could be; because France had suffered lesser devastation than what other countries had suffered from Napoleonic Wars. The decisions made were probably wise, because France did not attempt to expand or regain territories and once again became a part of the European system.
• Russia gained immensely out of the arrangements made at the Congress of Vienna and it started taking an active part in the affairs of Western Europe and continued to do so till her defeat in the Crimean War. The reduced number of German states later helped the cause of German Unification. Thenewly strengthened kingdoms of Russia and Sardinia were to help the cause of unification of Germany and Italy.

Defects of settlement by Congress of Vienna

Destruction of Liberal and Progressive Ideas

• The most fundamental among them wasits efforts to destroy the liberal and progressive ideas of the age.The leaders of the Vienna Congress had tried towipe out the ideas of the age of enlightenment popularized by the success ofFrench revolutionof 1789because these ideas were completely against the interests of the old order. They repudiated the influence and example of revolutionary French democracy.
• Victorious powers talked about the “rights, freedom, and independence of all nations”, butthey did not want to honour every demand of nationalism. They were determined to prevent another European war that is why they were more interested in maintaining balance of power and did not averse to sacrifice nationalist aspirations of people at the altar of European peace. Because of these reasons, Congress of Vienna neglected nationalist aspirations of the Poland, Belgium and yoked Norway to Denmark.Vienna Congress ignored nationalist movements of Poles, the Spaniards, the Italians and the Germans.

March Against Change

• Another defect of the settlement was thatinstead of moving with under currents of the age, the Vienna Congress tried to march against the winds of change(nationalist aspirations, government based on ideas of French Revolution etc.). As a result of this,the union of Holland and Belgium lasted only 15 years, till 1830.
• TheItalian and German settlement survived only about 50 years and Polish settlement till the end ofWorld War I.This temporary nature of territorial adjustments was result of unnatural unions. Take the example of Holland and Belgium merger. Holland was democratic, Protestant and Teutonic. Belgium was conservative, Catholic and the majority of her people spoke the French language. No wonder people of Belgium opposed this merger and got their independence in 1830.
• Similarly,the union of Russia and Finland was dissolved in 1917 when Russian Revolution succeeded and that of Sweden and Norway in 1905.German settlement and Confederation was destroyed by Bismarck and same was done with Italian settlement by Count Cavour.

Against the Aspirations of Masses

• Theworks of the Congress of Vienna were against the aspirations of the masses.The hopes of the liberals were frustrated. The people had supported their rulers with the hope of getting liberty and equality but the old monarchies had no intentions to rule as per ideas of enlightenment and re-imposed a despotic order based on class privileges.
• The rulers who were restored by the Vienna Settlement set up reactionary regimes in their countries and there was repression everywhere. This was particularly true in Spain and Naples where the Bourbons were restored. Metternich himself tried to police Europe although resources at his disposal were inadequate to do so efficiently in entire Europe. It also stretched Austria beyond her capacity and later resulted in creating bad blood between Austria and liberals, nationalists of neighbouring countries.
• Wherever liberalism raised its head , it was crushed. The Protocol of Troppau helped the European States to interfere in the internal affairs of other States. In Metternich’s words, European people want peace not the liberty.
• These suppressed aspirations erupted with a volcanic force in the form of revolutions of 1830 and 1848. These revolutions were able to change the face of the old regimes to a great extent. The remnants were wiped out by the processes of Italian and German unification. The Italians and Germans fought hard to satisfy their nationalist aspirations and finally succeeded in creating the united nation for themselves. That is why it is commented that history of nineteenth century is the history of undoing cardinal errors of Congress of Vienna.

Vienna Congress and End of Old Age

• Theage of revolution was declared closed with defeat of Napoleon and France again turning a Monarchy. The map of Europe was also redrawn to erase the effects of revolution from the political conscience of Europe. The age of revolution did result in many wars in Europe and removal of old seated monarchies. But, after the Vienna Congress this age of wars came to an end. Dynasties replaced by the Napoleon were restored in their respective countries.
• An era of political uncertainties largely came to an end and next war fought in Europe was four decades after the Congress on Vienna. Hence it has been said that with Congress of Vienna (old) age of revolution came to an end.

Beginning of New Age

• Congress of Vienna has unconsciously carried out certain arrangements responsible for the revolutionary transformations in future. Italian states of Piedmont and Sardinia was strengthened by giving Genoa and now the King of Sardinia could aspire to lead theprocess of unification of Italy. King Charles Albert could not succeed in 1848 but his sonVictor Immanuel-ll carried out Italian unification successfully during 1860s.
• The Confederation was formally created by a second treaty, theFinal Act of the Ministerial Conferenceto Complete and Consolidate theOrganization of theGerman Confederation. This treaty was not concluded and signed by the parties until 15 May 1820. The Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia were the largest and the most powerful members of the Confederation. It is interesting to remember that large parts of both countries were not included in the Confederation, because neither they had been part of the former Holy Roman Empire, nor had the greater parts of their armed forces been incorporated in the federal army.
• As per the treaty, it was decided that there would be a Diet (federal assembly) at Frankfurt which has to consist delegates from the sovereign German states. Austria and Prussia each had one vote in the Federal Assembly.
• All states were not given separate voting rights. Austria was the head of the German Confederation and Austrian delegate used to preside the Federal Assembly. The member states were forbidden to enter into an alliance with foreign power either against the Confederation as a whole or against one or more fellow members.

Holy Alliance

• TheHoly Alliance is the name of the treaty signed on September 26, 1815, in Paris by the monarchs of Austria, Prussia, and Russia. It was brainchild ofAlexander Iwho was encouraged to put forward his scheme of Holly Alliance due to his increased influence in Europe after the overthrow of Napoleon. Czar Alexander I was a visionary, a mystic, a man of moods and unstable imagination. He also had liberal views because of the influence of his Swiss tutor.
• Czar wanted that rulers of the European States should apply the principles of Christianity in their dealings with one another and with their peoples. As per the treaty they have to regard their subjects as their children. He wanted to spiritualise politics so that earth could be forever get rid of the scourge of war. He intended to set up a General Council or Senate consisting of 66 delegates from the different countries whose duty was to settle disputes and maintain the peace of Europe. Russia, Austria and Prussia made the required declaration but the declaration was not observed in actual practice. The Holy Alliance was an attempt to apply the principles of morality in the field of international diplomacy. The alliance lasted until the Crimean war (1853-1856). According to some Holy Alliance helped to prevent Prussia and Austria from fighting against Russia in the Crimean War. Otto von Bismarck managed to reunite the Holy Alliance after the unification of Germany but the alliance again faltered by the 1880s over the eastern question.
• Great Britain refused to subscribe to the principle of the Holy Alliance. Metternich looked upon it as “a loud-sounding nothing” or “moral demonstration.” The practical importance of the Holy Alliance was negligible.
• Its principles were never put into practice. However, the people of Europe confused the Holy Alliance with the Quadruple Alliance and as the Quadruple Alliance was used for the purpose of suppressing nationalism and liberalism everywhere in Europe, the Holy Alliance was also condemned and was regarded as a symbol of reaction, a league of princes against their peoples and a conspiracy against liberalism. However, the attitude of the various Powers towards the Holy Alliance showed that there was no unanimity of purpose among the Powers and there was every possibility of their falling out if circumstances so required.

Concert of Europe

• TheVienna Congress restored the pre-revolutionary conditions as far as possible. However, the fear of revolution did not allow European powers to rest until they had devised means to secure permanence of the Vienna settlement. Theidea of a Concert of Europe was suggested by the Austrian Chancellor, Kaunitz, in 1971;Quadruple Alliancewas formed on 20 November 1815 by Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia.
• The objective of Quadruple Alliance wasmaintenance of the treaties, signed with France, and consolidations of relations between these four powers. The powers also decided to hold periodical meetings. The task was cut off for the Alliance and it was maintenance of the order created by Vienna Congress and to tackle any challenge, which could disturb European peace, together. It was in this way that the Concert of Europe was formed.
• This system of diplomacy by conference was the most interesting experiment of Nineteenth century. On different occasions members of European Concert met and in these meetings the dominating personality was the Austrian Chancellor, Metternich. However,the Concert of Europe broke up in 1823 after holding four conferences.

Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)

• This was the first Congress under the above system. This Congress marked the Zenith of the system by which the Allied powers endeavoured to establish a joint control over the affairs of all continental States. In this meeting, the Congress was recognized as the Supreme Council of Europe. In this Congress, it was decided to withdraw Allied Army of Occupation from France on account of her payment of whole of war indemnity. It was in this Congress that it was decided to admit France into concert of Europe. Thus, Quadruple Alliance was further extended by the inclusion of the French State.
• In this Congress, certain differences arose among the Powers which only increased with time. Some differences which emerged among nations were: question of bringing back the rebellious colonies of Spain in South America under Spanish rule, suppression of slave trade, menace of Barbary Pirates in Mediterranean etc. In his meeting, Czar Alexander I proposed that a declaration should be signed by all the powers guaranteeing the existing territorial boundaries and also the rights of sovereign princes. It wanted to establish universal guarantee of the status quo which in turn would have resulted in the systematic suppression of nationalism, liberalism and constitutionalism in Europe. This scheme could not be succeeded because Great Britain opposed it vehemently.
• The question was whether the Powers had any right to intervene in the internal matters of a State merely on the ground that the status quo had been upset in a particular country. The principle of intervention in the internal affairs of other state was, however, accepted in 1820 by the Congress of Troppau in spite of protests of Great Britain.

Congress of Troppau (1820)

• The second Congress met at Troppau in 1820. In 1820, revolutions had broken out in Naples, Spain, and Portugal which had forced their rulers to grant liberal constitutions to the people. Great powers were unanimous in condemning the revolutions but differed in steps to be taken to deal with the situation.
• Russia offered armed assistance to the Spanish king but Metternich did not approve the action because of his fear of Russian aggrandisement. Situation in Naples was considered to be more urgent problem than others and consequently it was this revolt that occupied Congress of Troppau. Special interest of Austria (Venetia and Lombardy were part of Austrian empire. Parma, Modena and Tuscany were ruled by members of Hapsburg family) in Italy was recognised by all powers and it was decided that she should be allowed to suppress the revolt in Naples. Apart from that there was a treaty between King of Naples and Austria by which Austria was bound to come to the rescue of Naples.
• But Metternich was not happy with mere recognition of legal right of Austria to intervene in Naples. He also wanted a moral justification for such action. Moral justification would had made it within the rights of a State to interfere in internal matter of other State even if there is no prior treaty obliging one State to interfere in other State for maintenance of order. Britain was not ready to accept it.
• But it is here that Czar Alexander I declared himself to be a convert of Metternich. The result was that the Quintuple Alliance was divided into two parts. On the one side were the reactionary governments of Russia, Austria and Prussia and on the other were Great Britain and France. It is in this Congress famous Troppau Protocol was passed which justified the intervention of one State in the internal affairs of other States.
• Great Britain, however, refused to be a party to the above declaration. Her contention was that the Protocol was bound to be considered as a league of sovereigns against their subjects and there is a chance that because of such a declaration revolutionary tendency would get an impetus.

Congress of Laibach (1821)

• The third Congress was held at Laibach. Austria was allowed to send her troops to Naples to suppress the revolt there. While returning, the Austrian troops also put down a revolt in Piedmont.

Congress of Verona (1822)

• The fourth and last Congress was held at Verona in 1822. There were two questions before the Congress, Greek and Spain. The Greeks revolted against Turkey and Czar Alexander was itching to take isolated action as Austria had done in the case of Naples and Piedmont. However, Austria was Russia’s rival in the Balkans and Metternich, Austrian Chancellor, was determined to prevent Russian intervention in Greek affairs. It was no brainer that Metternich was also supported by Great Britain who was also uncomfortable with idea of Russian interference in the Balkans. Due to these different views and conflicting interests of the Great powers, the Greek question was not taken up by the Congress of Verona and the Spanish question alone remained before it.
• As discussed earlier there was a revolt in Spain in 1820 and the King of Spain, Ferdinand VII, was forced to abolish the Inquisition and proclaim a liberal constitution. Spanish King appealed to the King of France for help against his subjects. This appeal of one Bourbon to another Bourbon looked like the revival of the old Bourbon family pact and Great Britain was not comfortable with this development.
• At the Congress of Verona, France expressed her desire to intervene in Spain and asked for the moral support of the Powers. Austria Russia and Prussia backed France but Great Britain opposed the proposal.
• The result was that when the British point of view regarding non-intervention was not accepted (At Troppau Britain already had said that she is only willing to support in cases of legal justification not the moral ones), Great Britain withdrew from the Congress and thus the era of Congress ended.
• Canning, the new Foreign Minister of England, was happy at the idea of the break-up of the Concert of Europe. He said. “The issue of Verona split the one and indivisible Alliance into three parts as distinct as the constitutions of England, France and Muscovy. Things are getting back to a wholesome state again. Every nation for itself and God for us all. The time for Areopagus, and the like of that is gone by.”

Causes of Failure

• The failure of the Concert of Europe was due to many reasons. The principle of intervention in the internal affairs of the States divided the Powers into two camps. Great Britain opposed this principle in 1818. But in spite of that theProtocol of Troppau was made in 1820.
• Again in 1822, Great Britain opposed the intervention of France in Spain and despite her protests France had her way. French action was backed by Russia, Prussia and Austria. Great Britain could not put up with this attitude of the other Powers and she withdrew from the Congress of Verona.
• The era of Congress collapsed with the withdrawal of Great Britain. The British government was of the view that she is under no obligation to interfere or to assist in interfering in the internal affairs of independent nations. According to the British Government, specific engagement to interfere in France was an exception and should not be taken as a rule . Britain only wanted to limit itself with the state of territorial possessions settled at the Vienna Congress and state of relations between various nations.
• Concert of Europe was a unique experiment in field of foreign relations and diplomacy in nineteenth century Europe. The Congress system ensured that the Great Powers of Europe could usually meet together from time to time to resolve disputes among them and to preserve a certain balance of power in the continent. It also achieved some success in it. But as the time progressed Britain, with her parliamentary institutions, found herself unable to pull on with the autocratic Powers of Europe. The Concert of Europe degenerated into a clique for the preservation of autocracy and the suppression of democracy and nationalism in every shape and form.
• Mutual jealousies arose among the Powers from the very beginning. In successive Congresses, the Powers disagreed on various questions as discussed earlier but question of moral justification for intervention in internal matters of the States proved the final nail in the coffins for the future of the Concert of the Europe. There was no internal harmony among the Powers. Merely an outward show of co-operation was maintained for some time.
• However , such a state of affairs could not last long and the matters were precipitated by the intervention of France in Spain. Concert of Europe was a product of the Napoleonic Wars and its object was to provide against a common enemy-France. However, when the French danger was over, the unity among the Allies was gone and every Power decided to deal individually with her diplomacy.
• The British assertion of the principle of non-intervention was partly a return to a policy of isolation, which they were following before the period of French Revolution, and partly a claim for national independence which was not possible to reconcile with a policy of concerted action.
• Britain always wanted to follow an independent foreign policy and did not want to commit themselves with the affairs of Continental Europe, and commit only when it was necessary for safeguarding British interest.
• The concert of Europe broke up on the divergent interests of the powers, the irreconcilable differences of constitutional outlook and the absence of any agreed principles of political faith (Some were Constitutional monarchies whereas some were autocratic despot of highest order).
• The powers were agreed that peace must be maintained but they were not agreed on the point what threatened peace. They had different outlook and as per them things which can cause danger to the peace of the Europe were different. They were ready to defend common interests, but they had none else except the fear of France. There is also a need to state that it was good that the Concert of Europe collapsed. Had that continued, the nationalist and liberal forces in Europe would have got a severe setback. Great Britain rendered a great service to the cause of nationalism and constitutionalism by first protesting and later leaving the Concert.

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